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Sentencing Disparities, 2007.
This paper presents a literature review on the sentencing disparities between crack versus powder cocaine use.
4,382 words (approx. 17.5 pages), 12 sources, APA, AU$ 185.95
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Abstract
This paper evaluates several issues that may affect sentencing disparities for abusing crack as opposed to powder cocaine. Among these issues examined is race and its impact on sentencing. Gender issues are also considered, as are the pre-natal effects of these drugs. The writer clarifies the difference between crack and powder cocaine and how this may also influence sentencing.
Outline:
Sentencing Disparities
Cocaine and 'Crack Babies'
Past Research
Moral and Legal Issues
Development
Bibliography
From the Paper
"There are more African-American individuals on death row than white individuals and most of these individuals awaiting execution have committed drug crimes, many of which involved crack, and less that involved powder cocaine (Pope, 1976). Even the Attorney General of the United States is willing to admit that drug laws are the main reason that there are so many African-Americans on death row today and that African-Americans are arrested at a higher rate for these types of crimes than Caucasian individuals (Pope, 1976). While this may seem irrelevant to a discussion of crack vs. powder cocaine specifically, the issue of minority status is actually somewhat important in sentencing guidelines for all crimes, although it is not an issue that judges are legally allowed to use."
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Racial Disparity in Sentencing, 2006.
An analysis of the reasons for the racial disparity that is evident in the sentencing system in the United States.
1,792 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 92.95
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Abstract
This paper relates that there is evidence indicating a disparity between the sentencing of white and black individuals in the United States. The paper discusses the many reasons that exist for such a disparity, such as law enforcement strategies that target low income areas. It also discusses other reasons, including the ability to hire a private attorney versus having to depend on a public defender. The paper concludes with some suggestions for reducing racial disparity.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Reasons for Racial Disparity
Extra Legal and Non-Legal Factors in Sentencing Consideration
Suggestions for Reducing Disparity
Conclusion
From the Paper
"A large racial discrepancy exists in the court system when sentences are handed down to individuals. There is sufficient evidence to support that a black individual is more likely to receive a harsher sentence than a white individual who committed what would appear to be the same crime. Many theories exist for the explanations of the racial disparity such as law enforcement strategies, disproportionate number of minorities involved in crime, the implementation of mandatory sentencing guidelines, and even how plea bargains are handled. As well as there are theories for the reasons why racial disparities in sentencing existing, so are suggestions as to how to attempt to remedy it such as restricting judicial discretion, and maintaining sentencing within certain guidelines."
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Cocaine Crime Sentencing, 2005.
A comparative analysis of crack cocaine versus powder cocaine sentencing disparities.
6,800 words (approx. 27.2 pages), 30 sources, APA, AU$ 248.95
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Abstract
After a decade of contentious debate regarding the federal sentencing disparities between crack cocaine and powder cocaine, a number of significant initiatives to reform current policy have recently emerged. These include legislation introduced in Congress and a series of hearings resulting in recommendations by the United States Sentencing Commission. This paper provides a comparative analysis of the sentencing disparities with regard to crack cocaine as compared to powder cocaine. It examines the development of federal legislation creating greater criminal penalties for crack cocaine than powder cocaine and assesses recent developments, studies, and research in an effort to resolve the sentencing disparities. Finally, it offers recommendations to resolve this sentencing issue for future legislation, law enforcement agencies, and federal and local governments.
Paper Outline
Executive Summary
Introduction
Background of Cocaine
Statement of the Problem
Impact of Disparity in Sentencing
Demographic Profile of Federal Cocaine Offenders
Operational Assumptions
Statistical Analysis
Significance of the Research
Review of Related Literature
Recommendations and Hypothesis
Proposed Methodology
Proposed Data Collection
Research Findings
Results
Recommendations
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper
"A possible question for policy makers is whether the career offender guideline, especially as it applies to repeat drug traffickers, clearly promotes an important purpose of sentencing. Unlike repeat violent offenders, whose incapacitation may protect the public from additional crimes by the offender, criminologists and law enforcement officials have noted that retail-level drug traffickers are readily replaced by new drug sellers so long as the demand for a drug remains high. Incapacitating a low-level drug seller prevents little, if any, drug selling; the crime is simply committed by someone else."
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Cocaine Sentencing, 1997.
Examines cocaine industry, sentencing disparity for powder & crack cocaine offenders, & federal law biased against African-Americans.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 7 sources, AU$ 76.95
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From the Paper
"The sentencing disparity between convictions for crack cocaine and powder cocaine is discriminatory toward African-Americans. Federal policy is responsible for this disparity, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and Public Law 104-38 (Federal Sentencing Guidelines, Amendment, Disapproval) being the most significant contributors. Differences in the consumption and marketing patterns of crack cocaine and powder cocaine do not justify stiffer penalties. Ironically, the inequitable sentencing of African-Americans has done little to remedy the problem of cocaine trafficking in the United States.
Government officials justify the disparity in sentencing between powder cocaine and crack cocaine based on the devastating effect that the latter drug exerts at the community level. According to testimony at a recent Congressional hearing.."
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Disparities in the Court System, 2008.
A research proposal to look at the disparities in the sentencing of African Americans and Hispanics.
1,360 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 10 sources, APA, AU$ 73.95
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Abstract
This paper proposes quantitative research to determine if there is a disproportionate participation in crime by African Americans and Hispanic individuals. The author points out that it is extremely important to understand the biases that exist in sentencing African Americans and Hispanics so that this condition can be corrected. The paper describes research that proposes calculating disparity in sentencing through use of multiple regression statistical analysis that will consider many dependent variables.
Table of Contents:
Research Design
Setting Where Research is to be Conducted
Independent and Dependent Variables
Dependent variable
Independent Variables
Data Collection Method
Analysis of Data
Disparity Ratio
Implication of Proposed Research
Importance of Research
Significance of Research
Appendix
Instruments to be Used in the Proposed Research
From the Paper
"Further analysis of data will be conducted through multiple regression statistical analysis in which the dependent variable, the race and gender of offenders will = X and the independent variables in a multivariate regression model will = Y. Building a regression model for multivariate analysis includes collection of predictor and response values for common samples, and then fitting a predefined mathematical relationship to the collected data. Multivariate analysis is also referred to as factor analysis in which several predictive variables are simultaneously taken into account resulting in more accuracy."
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Crack Cocaine Sentencing, 2008.
Looks at disparities against blacks in crack cocaine sentencing.
1,755 words (approx. 7.0 pages), 18 sources, MLA, AU$ 90.95
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Abstract
This paper argues that racial discrimination in the sentencing of blacks has taken away judicial discretion and created an expensive and regretful policy of imprisoning large numbers of blacks, who might have been better off given second chances. The author points out that the passage of the crack cocaine law in 1986 made black defendants much more liable to spend time in prison if they were street dealers of crack cocaine rather than if they were dealing powder cocaine, which is essentially the same drug. The paper emphasizes that crack cocaine sentences are the largest factor in racial disparity in federal sentencing. Includes charts.
From the Paper
"The cocaine sentencing debate that followed the implementation of the 1986 law has shown the depth of the impact of crack sentencing disparity. In the 1980s, crack cocaine use was covered widely by the press, due to its rapid growth in the drug market. For the first time cocaine was made available to a wider economic class because of its cheap price. By taking powder cocaine, cooking it with baking soda and water, a hard rocky substance is created that can be cracked into smaller pieces called "Crack." These "rocks" are then sold in small quantities."
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Sentencing of Minorities, 2008.
A look at disparities in the court system in the sentencing of minorities.
8,689 words (approx. 34.8 pages), 20 sources, APA, AU$ 292.95
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to show that there is disparity between the sentencing guidelines that are given to Caucasians and to non-Caucasians and to look at the extent race plays a part in the prosecution for different crimes. In an effort to be fair, opposing views on this subject are discussed and the problems and proposed solutions are discussed as well. By examining all of these issues, it attempts to show that individuals who are of minority races often meet with harsher punishments than others who come into the criminal justice system.
Outline:
Introduction
Review of Literature
Hypotheses
Research Design
Analysis of Data
Implications of Proposed Research
From the Paper
"There are many more minorities in the prison system and on death row than there are Caucasian individuals, and there are more men than women. For the purposes of this paper the gender differences will not be an issue. Whether they are male or female will be irrelevant; the only concern will be with what race they belong to. According to the Supreme Court, there should be equal treatment for all individuals who are found to the guilty of an infraction of the law (Saltzburg, 2003). This should be true regardless of the race of the individuals but sadly there seems to be loopholes in the criminal justice system which cause many of these individuals to fall into difficulty with the law and then to have trouble getting out of this cycle of scrutiny and arrest (Thompson, 1999). "
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Bias in Sentencing, 2005.
This paper discusses racial and ethnic bias in criminal sentencing.
2,475 words (approx. 9.9 pages), 8 sources, APA, AU$ 140.95
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Abstract
The paper examines the issue of racial and ethnic bias in criminal sentencing and notes the disparity in death penalty sentencing. The paper discusses the influence of racial perception in sentencing decisions and the concept of stereotyping. The paper examines the harsh sentences for drug-related crimes and blacks.
From the Paper
"Numerous reports have established there is racial disparity in criminal sentencing in the United States. The Sentencing Project states that rates of incarceration by the Commission finds racial disparity in jail sentences."
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Racial Discrimination in Sentencing, 2004.
An analysis of "Judging Judicial Discretion: Legal Factors and Racial Discrimination in Sentencing" by S. Bushway and A. Piehl.
996 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 1 source, APA, AU$ 57.95
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Abstract
The paper examines the article "Judging Judicial Discretion: Legal Factors and Racial Discrimination in Sentencing" where the authors attempt to determine whether judges in Maryland are racially discriminatory in their sentencing decisions. The paper studies their hypothesis that even in a state with voluntary sentencing guidelines, African-American offenders are being sentenced more harshly than whites. The paper looks at the trend the authors discovered regarding judges hiding behind legal factors to issue disparate sentences and agrees with the authors' conclusion that discrimination is happening in sentencing.
From the Paper
"The authors first started by explaining previous research on racial discrimination in sentencing. The issue of warranted and unwarranted disparity was very important to understanding the different approaches to this topic. As discussed in our textbook, African Americans tend to have longer criminal histories and they are charged with more serious crimes. In the article it was explained that most researchers separate warranted disparity, such as a harsher sentence because of a long criminal history, and unwarranted disparity, which can only be explained by race or other extra-legal influences on the sentencing decision (Bushway & Piehl, 2001). The authors state, "there is little evidence of direct racial discrimination once these legal factors are included in the statistical models" (Bushway & Piehl, 2001, p. 734). However, the authors contend that by taking out the warranted cases the discrimination is actually masked because there is disparity in those cases. This is discussed further in their findings."
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Income Disparities in Latin America, 2002.
This paper discusses income disparities in Latin America: The history, main causes, the different countries, high-income disparities, ethnicity and gender, and possible solutions.
5,725 words (approx. 22.9 pages), 12 sources, MLA, AU$ 222.95
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Abstract
This paper states that, although inequality and high levels of income disparity represent major challenges confronting economists and leaders in many parts of the world, the problem is particularly severe in the Latin American countries. The author believes that the root of this phenomenon lies in the region's colonial history and the exploitation of the indigenous population as slave labor for agriculture and tapping the mines. The paper concludes that these stubborn patterns of inequality can be overcome if determined efforts are made to open political and social policies to all and to provide access by the poorer sections to social services. Footnotes.
Table of Contents
Income Disparities in Latin America
Measuring Inequality: Some Recent Studies
Latin America: How Unequal?
Income Disparity in Latin America: Getting Worse?
Is Poverty and Income Disparity Related?
Historical Roots of Inequality in Latin America
Comparison with Colonization of North America
Persisting Patterns of Inequality
Social, Economic and Political Changes in the 20th Century
Roles of Race, Ethnicity and Gender in Income Disparities
Racial Identification
Ethnic Identification
Identity Formation and Discrimination
Assets of Households
Access to Services
Average Incomes
What do the Race and Gender-Related Income Statistics Mean?
The Consequences of Inequality
Considered Unfair
Results in Greater Poverty
Affects Economic Growth
Current Backlash
Solutions for Reducing the Inequality in Latin America
More Open Political and Social Institutions
More Equitable Economic Institutions and Policies
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Poverty and income disparity are not the same concepts. Poverty may decline in a country or region where income disparity is increasing. However, experience has shown that such a situation occurs rarely and inequality and poverty are closely related. This is because in a growing economy with stable levels of inequality, poverty invariably falls. As a result the Latin American region showed significant reduction in poverty levels in the 1970s, when its economies were growing with a corresponding drop in inequality. On the other hand, the 1980s saw a fall in incomes and more unequal income distribution?resulting in accelerated increase in poverty."
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Race and Sentencing Guidelines, 2004.
A look at the extent to which race plays a role in the different sentencing ranges applicable to different crimes.
8,519 words (approx. 34.1 pages), 14 sources, APA, AU$ 289.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how race has been a consideration in sentencing guidelines for quite some time and how there is a concern that perhaps the sentencing guidelines and the entire criminal justice system are racially biased. It attempts to show that there is disparity between the sentencing guidelines given to Caucasians and non-Caucasians and looks at the extent race plays a part in the prosecution for different crimes. In an effort to be fair, opposing views are discussed, and the problems and proposed solutions are discussed as well. It also shows how it can be seen that individuals who are of minority races often meet with harsher punishments than others who come into the criminal justice system.
Outline
Introduction
Is it Discrimination?
Courts, Judges and the Real World
The Burden of Proof and Suspicion
Minorities and the Law
Drug Laws and Minorities
Minorities, the Death Penalty and the Community
From the Paper
"There are Caucasian individuals in this country that would argue that minority races have more crime and that they are not as good of individuals as those of Caucasian ancestry. However, this does not necessarily mean that this observation is accurate. One must consider the possibility that those that are of minority race in this country are not committing crimes at a higher rate, but that they are being targeted at a higher rate and therefore the crimes that they do commit are being discovered more than the crimes that are committed by Caucasian individuals . Many of these crimes relate to drugs and so the main focus of this paper will be on the issue of drug crimes. However, other crimes will be considered in order to show that this is something that travels across the entire criminal spectrum and is not limited to one area of crime. This is important to understand because it indicates the racial biases that individuals in this country hold are not related to the particular type of crime and are tied only to the race of the individual in question."
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Policies of Sentencing, 2007.
An analysis of the changing nature of criminal sentencing guidelines.
957 words (approx. 3.8 pages), 4 sources, MLA, AU$ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper introduces, discusses and analyzes the topic of criminal justice. Specifically it discusses why criminal sentencing guidelines are set up the way that they are. It looks at the history of sentencing and discusses some of the controversial aspects of sentencing policies. It then looks at ways that policies on sentencing could be improved.
From the Paper
"However, there are exceptions to sentencing guidelines in modern criminal sentencing, and that is one aspect of sentencing that brings forth many critics. The most controversial aspect of sentencing are mandatory guidelines for specific crimes, and many people feel these mandatory sentences simply do not work. Often the sentences are too long in these cases, or the history of the criminal and the facts of the crime are not brought into being. In short, there are exceptions to all rules, specially these (Bowman, 2003, p. B05). This is evident in statistics since 1970. During that time, the prison population has more than quadrupled, indicating a harder line, mandatory approach to many criminals in the sentencing process (Reitz, 2000, p. 541). Rehabilitation has become far less desirable, while alternative forms of punishment, such as house arrest and community service have been investigated as punishment for some "white-collar" crimes."
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Cardiovascular Disease Disparities, 2001.
An analysis of hypertension disparities and policy development in the African-American and Caucasian societies.
3,515 words (approx. 14.1 pages), 28 sources, APA, AU$ 158.95
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Abstract
The number of existing cases of high blood pressure is nearly 40% higher in blacks than in whites and its effects are more frequent and severe in this population. Recent emphasis on racial/ethnic health disparities in the field of public health has led to a call for the development of socio-ecological approaches toward the elimination of cardiovascular disease disparities, however solutions to the problem are typically directed at health behavior change. This paper examines policies addressing hypertension disparities enacted at the federal level during the last five years, provides an overview of the problem definitions and solutions framed to set the agenda for these policies, explores the role of key policy actors in setting the policy agenda for the reduction of hypertension disparities, and makes recommendations for a different problem definition (less individualistic) with plausible solutions.
From the Paper
"African Americans are disproportionately burdened with disease morbidity and mortality associated with hypertension.1 The existence of these racial disparities warrants public health policy attention for two reasons: first, the constitution delegates the ?responsibility to protect and promote the welfare of the public? to the government (Scutchfield & Keck, 1997) and the existence of these disparities suggests that the welfare of some citizens is not being protected; second, the ethical framework for public policy development, which includes the egalitarian perspective of justice, holds that ?everyone should have equal access to both the benefits and burdens arising from the pursuit of health? (Longest 1998); however, current research on disparities highlights inequalities in access to employment, education, housing, and healthcare as underlying reasons for gaps in health status (Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2000; Ren & Amick, 1996; Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999)."
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Regional Economic Disparities In Canada, 2002.
Examines the regional disparities in Canada using data from 1966-1996 and argues that the disparity is growing.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 5 sources, AU$ 56.95
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Abstract
Over the past thirty years, rather than improving, it is clear to see that the regional disparities, economic and otherwise, have been getting worse. Looking to census data over the circa 1966-96 period, we can see that Eastern Canada, in particular, has fared very poorly. This paper will bring this evidence to light, and argue that, not only have regional inequalities been exacerbated in the past 30 years, but that they will continue to get worse as globalization intensifies.
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The Federal Sentencing Guidelines and Procedures, 2002.
This paper creates a paradigm of our criminal justice system, the federal sentencing guidelines and procedures.
1,470 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 6 sources, APA, AU$ 78.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes and examines the multitude of issues related to the Federal Sentencing Guidelines and Procedures. The author discusses issues concerning crime in general and gives an overview and evaluation of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines and Procedures. This paper concludes with recommendations for resolving the crime problem and improving the Federal Sentencing Guidelines and Procedures.
From the Paper
"Since the early 1970s, no public problem has worried Americans more persistently than crime. When individuals are asked in opinion surveys to list the problems that concern them most, the threat of crime typically comes at or near the top of the list. However, when the same people list the issues on which they will decide which candidate to vote for, crime usually comes behind half-a-dozen other subjects. The most likely explanation for why individuals are so concerned about crime is that crime extends wide and far, impacting individuals and society on an emotional, financial, and physical level. Additionally, crime intrigues academics as well as politicians because despite the vast expenditures on multiple programs and theories, there has not been any concrete, tried and proven answer regarding how to solve crime."
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Racial and Ethnic Health Care Disparities, 2004.
Questions whether racial and ethnic health care disparities are really caused by insurance discrepancies and other patient-related factors.
1,590 words (approx. 6.4 pages), 4 sources, MLA, AU$ 84.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses potential causes of racial and ethnic health care disparities. It explores the antithesis that disparities are not insurance-related or related to a patient's minority status. The paper rejects this antithesis and then asserts and provides evidence that, indeed, racial and ethnic health care disparities are due to insurance-related factors and the minority status of the patient.
From the Paper
"Almost all industrialized countries in the world implement a health care system that is run on a national level thus providing health care equally to all citizens of the country. The United States is unique in that respect. The U.S. does not provide a federally run health care plan, and as a result, equality of health care among all citizens is not assured. In fact, an individual?s access to health care often is correlated to one?s socio-economic status, and in many situations, to one?s race or ethnic background (Luhman 2002). As of 2002, over 400 clinical studies on racial and ethnic health care have provided evidence showing that across almost all medical areas, minorities generally receive a lower quality of care than do whites (Late 2003)."
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