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Income Disparity Measurement, 2005.
This paper discusses the problems of measuring income disparity especially in the developing world.
5,390 words (approx. 21.6 pages), 23 sources, APA, AU$ 212.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that sociologists and politicians have become extremely worried about the growth in international and national income disparity especially in developing countries, which is considered to be the cause of political strife. The author stresses that calculating the level of income disparity in developed or under-developed societies is not easy; two different studies of one particular country, at the exact same time, can come to two different conclusions. The paper proposes a comparative analysis of the various structures and theories of income disparity measurements being utilized by the third world countries, which are comprehensive enough to accurately evaluate income disparities with all independent variable, such as color, gender, rural/urban, economical system and occupation. Tables and graphs.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Research Questions
General Questions
Specific Questions
Background of the Study
The Histories Context of Income Disparity:
Literature Review
A Brief Overview of the Income Disparity Measurement Methods Being Used
Critical Analysis of these Measurement Methods
Problems with the Use of these Methods within Countries
Ideas about the Gaps that Exist
What is Wrong with the Present Methods being Used?
Theoretical Framework
Summary of the Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis
General Questions
Specific Questions
Research Design
Operationalization Variables
Data Collected
Analysis Plan
Causal Diagram (Ordinary Least Squares Regression)
Conclusion
Table: World Population and Total poverty
Table: Education Spending in relation to the Total GDP and Total Expenditure of the Governments
Table: The Percentage of Income Sharing between the Richest and the Poorest
Table: Gender Related Income Distribution
Table: Occupation and Unemployment Rates
From the Paper
"A substitute structure of measurement frequently employed by the third world has been the use of per capita GNP facts and figures (GNP/c), however, the consideration of purchasing power parity (PPP) has been made and changes have been made accordingly. The changes made in this system compare the local prices of products, merchandise and services of that particular country with the international prices of the same commodities. By utilizing the identical comparative prices for each and every product and services, the researchers evaluated the income measurements that had been changed for purchasing power parity (PPP). The results of the measurements model that considers the purchasing power parity (PPP) and changes the GNP/c accordingly is different from the model that disregards the changes."
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Income Disparities in Latin America, 2002.
This paper discusses income disparities in Latin America: The history, main causes, the different countries, high-income disparities, ethnicity and gender, and possible solutions.
5,725 words (approx. 22.9 pages), 12 sources, MLA, AU$ 222.95
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Abstract
This paper states that, although inequality and high levels of income disparity represent major challenges confronting economists and leaders in many parts of the world, the problem is particularly severe in the Latin American countries. The author believes that the root of this phenomenon lies in the region's colonial history and the exploitation of the indigenous population as slave labor for agriculture and tapping the mines. The paper concludes that these stubborn patterns of inequality can be overcome if determined efforts are made to open political and social policies to all and to provide access by the poorer sections to social services. Footnotes.
Table of Contents
Income Disparities in Latin America
Measuring Inequality: Some Recent Studies
Latin America: How Unequal?
Income Disparity in Latin America: Getting Worse?
Is Poverty and Income Disparity Related?
Historical Roots of Inequality in Latin America
Comparison with Colonization of North America
Persisting Patterns of Inequality
Social, Economic and Political Changes in the 20th Century
Roles of Race, Ethnicity and Gender in Income Disparities
Racial Identification
Ethnic Identification
Identity Formation and Discrimination
Assets of Households
Access to Services
Average Incomes
What do the Race and Gender-Related Income Statistics Mean?
The Consequences of Inequality
Considered Unfair
Results in Greater Poverty
Affects Economic Growth
Current Backlash
Solutions for Reducing the Inequality in Latin America
More Open Political and Social Institutions
More Equitable Economic Institutions and Policies
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Poverty and income disparity are not the same concepts. Poverty may decline in a country or region where income disparity is increasing. However, experience has shown that such a situation occurs rarely and inequality and poverty are closely related. This is because in a growing economy with stable levels of inequality, poverty invariably falls. As a result the Latin American region showed significant reduction in poverty levels in the 1970s, when its economies were growing with a corresponding drop in inequality. On the other hand, the 1980s saw a fall in incomes and more unequal income distribution?resulting in accelerated increase in poverty."
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Income Disparity and Age, 2005.
A comparison of income disparity and pension plans for the elderly in the US and Canada.
2,475 words (approx. 9.9 pages), 10 sources, AU$ 157.95
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Abstract
This paper compares statistics from the United States and Canada in terms of income disparity and age, showing how the elderly earn less and may be retired so that they are dependent on pensions and government payments to live,. The paper analyzes how the retirement system in Canada is better shaped to maintain a level for the elderly than is the Social Security system in the United States.
From the Paper
"Income inequality has been examined from a number of perspectives, noting the wide disparity between the income of the richest and the poorest, between people in different jobs, between genders, between different racial groups, and on the basis of age. Many such inequalities are evidence of unfair distribution, while that for age suggests certain characteristics of working life as the cause. An examination of the age disparities in the United States and Canada show why this is so and also suggest some differences between the two countries. Income disparities exist within age groups and have more to do with unfair distribution caused by such other factors as race and gender, along with expected differences on the basis of education."
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Income Disparity in the United States, 2004.
Shows the gap between the very rich and the very poor in the American economy.
1,315 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 71.95
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Abstract
As the disparity grows between rich and poor in America, so does the inequality in the country, which threatens the very fabric of lives of its citizens. Income disparity does not allow those living in poverty to climb out and join the middle class and puts the greatest wealth, power, and privilege in the hands of a select few. This paper argues that, until this trend turns, there will always be two distinct "nations" in America, the very rich and the very poor. Using U.S. census data and information from economists and political experts, the topic of income disparity between the wealthiest and the poorest is established, discussed, and evaluated in this paper.
From the Paper
"While we are one of the richest nations on Earth, we do not share the wealth equitably, and the poor in America continue to struggle to make ends meet. These people at the lowest income levels not only lack basic necessities, such as health care and even decent housing conditions, they also drain the country's social and welfare services, for most of them simply cannot afford to live on the income they earn. As the nation's economy and tax structure changes, there are fewer resources available for these social services for the poor, and so, while the wealthy get wealthier, the poor suffer with fewer healthcare services, lower welfare payments, and a further reduced standard of living."
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Racial Disparities in Wealth and Income Studies, 2003.
Discusses why it is important to study wealth along with income in examining inequalities in America.
1,306 words (approx. 5.2 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 71.95
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Abstract
This paper examines racial differences in income and wealth, with particular focus on both the wealth and income gap and the difference between each. The paper examines the difference between wealth and income, specifically, pertaining to African-Americans and Caucasians in the United States.
From the Paper
"Many people have sources of money other than their income. Such other resources of money can be referred to as a person?s wealth or net-worth. Income is all earnings, money, wages or payments one is periodically receiving. It?s the flow of money regularly from one source to another. Wealth is equivalent to total assets minus liabilities. This means that wealth consists of stocks, real estate, trusts, bonds, mutual funds, etc. In this country, wealth is more important than income because it brings power and prestige with it. In other words, wealth makes one credible. It carries a certain aura to have wealth; it means everything one owns is paid off, they do are not in debt to any person or institution. Many people have no wealth, solely income."
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Impediments to Health Care Access for Low Income Visible Minorities, 2002.
Identifies causal factors for the gap in health care access for lower-income Americans and visible minorities and the more affluent members of America's majority.
29,350 words (approx. 117.4 pages), 135 sources, APA, AU$ 400.95
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Abstract
As the American population continues to become more diverse racially, members of visible minority groups within the population become more prominent. Simultaneously, with the increase in diversity, income distribution in the American economy has become more distorted. While economic growth in the United States has surged over the past decade, the income gap has widened; not only between the richest and poorest Americans, but also between moderate-income and low-income Americans. Members of visible minorities in the population tend to be represented disproportionately in the low-income and poverty classifications in the United States. While there is an abundance of implications of this state of affairs, one of the more crucial ones is access to health care. Individual and household financial capacity, the scarcity of employer-paid health insurance among small businesses, cultural differences based in social psychology and other factors frequently act as impediments to health care access for low-income individuals and households among visible minority population groups in the contemporary United States. This problem and these issues are investigated in this study. The study identifies causal factors for the gap in health care access between lower-income Americans and members of visible minorities in the United States, on the one hand, and more affluent Americans and members of the majority segment of the population, on the other hand. The initial chapter of this study delineates the problem investigated. Specific research questions are formulated and stated to provide greater focus for the investigation.
Social psychological theory and applied social psychology literature are reviewed in the second chapter. Literature relevant to the functioning of low-income and visible minority population groups in the United States within a social psychological context are reviewed in the third chapter. The fourth chapter is devoted to a review of literature relevant to both the health care system in the United States and the experiences of low-income and visible minority population groups in relation to health care access and health care delivery in the United States. An assessment of the problem investigated, performed within the structure of the research questions, is presented in the final (fifth) chapter. Conclusions drawn from the study findings are stated and recommendations for further research are made. The summary conclusions reached through the conduct of this study relate both to health care access and health care utilization by low-income persons and members of visible minorities. With respect to health care access, the summary conclusion reached is that a universal system of health care entitlement is required in the United States. In relation to health care utilization by low-income persons and members of visible minorities, the summary conclusion reached is that extensive education is required for both low-income persons and members of visible minorities, on the one hand, and health care providers, on the other hand. Low-income persons and members of visible minorities require education on the benefits and function of health care services, while health care providers require education in the social mores of the diverse populations they must serve.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Problem Delineation
Background on the Problem
Statement of the Problem
Research Questions
Review of Relevant Social Psychology Theory and Literature
Introduction
Sociological Theory and Health Care
The Welfare State
Accessing Contemporary Health Care
Role of Ethics in Accessing Health Care
Alternative Health Care Delivery Systems
Chapter Conclusions
Social Functioning of Low-Income and Visible Minority Population Groups
Introduction
HIV/AIDS Related Behavior
Initiatives to Improve Health Care
Access and Behaviors
The American Health Care System and the Experiences of Low-Income and Visible Minority Groups
Introduction
The American Health Care System
Analysis of Health Care Delivery Systems
Care Quality
Alternative Approaches to Health Care
Bioethical Issues
Problems of Accessibility
Initiatives to Improve Minority Access
Chapter Conclusions
Assessment of the Problem Discussion, Recommendations for Further Research
Appendices
Annotated Bibliography
From the Paper
"Social Cognitive Theory [self-efficacy] emphasizes the role of expectancies, self-efficacy, peer normative influences, and social competency skills as key components affecting adolescents? behaviors (DiClemente, Lodico, Grinstead, Harper, Rickman, Evans, & Coates, 1996). The applicability of models based on social psychological principles for understanding African-Americans? decision-making and sexual behavior has been questioned because most such models tend to be individually-focused and do not take into account the social context in which the behavior is embedded (Cochran & Mays, 1993). Social cognitive theory, however, explicitly integrates behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors as reciprocally interactive. Thus, given the hypothesized multi-factorial nature of sexual decision making and the potential impact of the high-risk social environment of the study population, approaches based on social cognitive theory are thought to be particularly relevant for understanding the myriad factors that may affect African-Americans? sexual behavior."
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Federal Income Tax Receipts and Overall Tax Rate, 2008.
An analysis of the significant relationships among the individual income tax rates and the federal income tax receipts.
2,533 words (approx. 10.1 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 122.95
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Abstract
This paper investigates whether and how the federal income tax receipts change given the overall tax rate for individual income taxes. The paper also investigates whether the tax receipts exhibit a diminishing return as marginal tax rates increase. The paper concludes that there exists a meaningful relationship between the marginal income tax rate and the marginal income tax receipts.
Outline
Introduction
Model
Model Results
Initial Model
Alternative Model
Alternate Model End Notes
Initial and Alternative Model Results
Data Mining
Data Mining Results
Conclusion
Appendix A: Figures
Appendix B: Data Sources
From the Paper
"Now, disregarding all the statistical minutia that may or may not be relevant the author will make the following observations regarding the alternate model. This model is depicting the predictive power of the variance of the marginal individual income tax rates among all five income quintiles to the income tax receipts at the federal level. It is apparent from the model that nearly a quarter of the variation in the marginal tax receipts can be predicted through the marginal tax rate, ceteris paribus."
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International Trade on Income Inequality, 2008.
This paper researches the effects of international trade, immigration and the decline of unionism on income inequality.
2,893 words (approx. 11.6 pages), 8 sources, APA, AU$ 137.95
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Abstract
America as the land of opportunity is a concept that has been around since the country's inception. Americans should have the economic opportunity that is associated with this general concept. As such, the topic of income inequality is of great importance. This paper explores the effects of international trade, immigration, and unionism on income inequality.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Income Inequality
The Effects of International Trade on Income Inequality
The Effects of Immigration on Income Inequality
The Effects of the Decline of Unionism on Income Inequality
Is Income Inequality Getting a Bad Rap?
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Rising inequality and decreasing poverty could very well be a consistent feature of the New Economy. Rapid technological advancements have not only created great fortunes for a select few, but have also substantially improved the wages and quality of life for people at the lower end of the economic ladder. A better-educated society has also led to less poverty, while still increasing the income inequality gap, since those with college degrees have a wider spread of incomes. Although income inequality is disturbing, it is far better than poverty. More income inequality, with a faster growing economy, and less poverty is far more desirable than an economy with equal distribution of income but a high rate of poverty. This is not the first time in history that this blend of greater income inequality and reduced poverty has occurred."
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Racial Disparity in Sentencing, 2006.
An analysis of the reasons for the racial disparity that is evident in the sentencing system in the United States.
1,792 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 92.95
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Abstract
This paper relates that there is evidence indicating a disparity between the sentencing of white and black individuals in the United States. The paper discusses the many reasons that exist for such a disparity, such as law enforcement strategies that target low income areas. It also discusses other reasons, including the ability to hire a private attorney versus having to depend on a public defender. The paper concludes with some suggestions for reducing racial disparity.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Reasons for Racial Disparity
Extra Legal and Non-Legal Factors in Sentencing Consideration
Suggestions for Reducing Disparity
Conclusion
From the Paper
"A large racial discrepancy exists in the court system when sentences are handed down to individuals. There is sufficient evidence to support that a black individual is more likely to receive a harsher sentence than a white individual who committed what would appear to be the same crime. Many theories exist for the explanations of the racial disparity such as law enforcement strategies, disproportionate number of minorities involved in crime, the implementation of mandatory sentencing guidelines, and even how plea bargains are handled. As well as there are theories for the reasons why racial disparities in sentencing existing, so are suggestions as to how to attempt to remedy it such as restricting judicial discretion, and maintaining sentencing within certain guidelines."
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Gender, Education and Income, 2008.
This paper examines the effect of educational attainment on the gender wage gap in Canada.
1,307 words (approx. 5.2 pages), 8 sources, MLA, AU$ 71.95
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Abstract
The paper presents research that shows how there is a definite gender, education and income disparity in Canada that is deteriorating. The paper points out that these inequalities are more persistent in rural Canada and among non-white women and immigrants.
From the Paper
"Even though the educational disparity between women and men has almost disappeared, there is still an income gap between the two, with women earning up to 50 to 84 percent as much as men. The research for this paper confirms this finding. When the research looks at non-white women, women who are immigrants, and women who reside in more rural areas, particularly Alberta, the education/income distances grow wider."
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Home Ownership for Low-Income Households, 2008.
An analysis of consumer choice and low-income housing.
2,570 words (approx. 10.3 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 124.95
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Abstract
This paper establishes a model to elucidate how low-income heads-of-households (LIHOH) decide to purchase a home. The paper explains that after the decision is made, the model will predict the outcome for the homeowners when certain variables are changed, such as interest rates and income. The paper then establishes a hypothesis, proposes a way to prove the hypothesis using social science work done in previous studies, and then examines the outcome. Next, the paper examines what additional evidence might be collected in new quantitative studies to bolster or challenge the hypothesis. This paper also argues that the boom in housing ownership in the United States during the 1990s was largely driven by lower-cost loans, rather than changes in consumer preferences amongst lower-income heads of household. The paper points out that recent interest rate rises and changes in the job prospects of low-income earners in the US should predict a lower rate of house ownership in the future.
Outline:
Introduction
Hypothesis
Methodology
Income
Expectations of Income Continuation
Previous Home Ownership
Down Payment
Interest Rates
ARM's (Adjustable Rate Mortgages)
Reverse Mortgages
Increasing Housing Prices
Non-Financial Home-Buying Incentives
Completing the Model's Assumptions
Results Analysis
Critiques of this Model
Need for Further Study
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Heads of household in poor households--defined as up to two times the official US poverty level of $16,000 per household (2004) in the US, or $32,000 (DeNavas-Wait). The rate of home ownership has increased in this segment of the US population during the 1990's (Belsky E. S. and Duda 1-45). Although many LIHOH figures are clouded by the mix between Hispanic, Black and other lower-income classifications, the trend towards higher homeownership in the 1990's is clear. According to the Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, more than 55 percent of lower-income households held debt in 2004, up from 45% in 1989."
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Disposable Income and Domestic Travel, 2008.
An examination of the effects of disposable income on domestic travel.
1,262 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 4 sources, APA, AU$ 68.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the main hypothesis of whether increases in disposable income, cause an increase in domestic travel, and the sub-hypothesis of whether domestic travel is a normal or luxury good. The paper explains that the main aim is to determine the true nature of the relationship between disposable income and domestic travel. The paper further explores the effect of disposable income on domestic travel. In conclusion, the paper shows that a complete model of domestic travel entails looking at all determinants of travel as a supposed explanatory variable before the relationship between personal disposable income and domestic travel can be analyzed and this is necessary so that the relationship coefficients are unbiased.
Outline:
Literature Survey
Theory and Hypothesis: What is the Effect of Disposable Income on Domestic Travel
From the Paper
"Research that has centered on domestic travel, began as early as the 1960's, especially in wake of the fact that in many developed countries citizens were spending excessively on travel. Empirical studies by Gray found that disposable income was a major determinant of travel. Gray's analysis was an econometric model that included explanatory variables such as the foreign exchange rate, fare payments abroad, and travel spending by local residents. Gray's work also included another element that was absent in other papers, that is, Gray found that the prices of goods and services while traveling were an important determinant of travel. This particular model is important to the testing of the relevant hypotheses since, it gives a clear picture as to what the complete model of domestic travel should entail as explanatory variables. It is therefore less likely to get a biased determinant if all the necessary independent variables are included in the model; Gray's research paper dictates what these variables should be."
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Dual-income Families, 1995.
Discusses dual-income families as a reflection of socioeconomic changes, statistics and theories (general equilibrium, income distribution and international trade).
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 9 sources, AU$ 127.95
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From the Paper
"DUAL EARNER FAMILIES
Abstract
This research examined the phenomenon of the dual earner family in the United States. Changes in the patterns of dual earner families were addressed, and explanations of these changing patterns provided by economic theory were discussed.
A century ago, only five-percent of married woman participated in the labor market. In 1940, fewer than one married woman in seven was working outside the home, while 60 percent work outside the home in 1995. Only 17 percent of married couples are one-earner, with the rest having other or no earners. In the mid-1990s, the dual income family is more common than the traditional one-income married household where the husband works and the wife stays at home. In 1980, half of all married couples ..."
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Residential or Low Income Housing Construction, 2006.
A market analysis of four low-income housing developments constructed in four growing Chicago, Illinois, suburban market areas.
1,910 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 97.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a market analysis and assessment of four low-income housing development projects in Chicago and their impact on surrounding residential neighborhoods. The study conducted was designed to determine whether or not such housing projects have negative effects on surrounding neighborhoods and considered such factors as design and construction quality, building density, the presence or absence of litter, landscaping, ages and conditions of parked cars and window treatments. Also considered by the study were the number of children in the complex and their ages. The study was conducted assuming that the projects were adequately managed and fully occupied and the residents occupying the development project met government-established income criteria. The study found that the stereotype that low income housing projects negatively affect surrounding residential neighborhoods is not necessarily true and, moreover, low-income housing built right in our backyards might have no effect at all on property values.
From the Paper
"Although the specific loan guarantees, tax credits, or rent subsidy programs varied between the four projects, all were entirely either low-income or very low-income family housing developments in developing suburban areas. The quality of the management of the projects chosen could not be determined in advance. As it turned out, all of the projects chosen for the study appeared to be adequately managed and were fully occupied. Therefore, the conclusions assume competent management-not an insignificant factor. Because of the prevailing image of low-income housing, some measurable negative impact was expected; the method developed for analyzing the projects attempted to account for this impact."
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American Income Inequality, 2007.
This paper discuses geography as a factor in analyzing American income inequality.
2,005 words (approx. 8.0 pages), 9 sources, MLA, AU$ 102.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the North-South problem roughly outlines a trend in developed nations, including Germany, France and the United States, for the North to be more developed than the South, thus creating a geographical basis from which income inequality can be sourced. The author points out that another influence on geographical income inequality lies in the dissimilarity in the dynamic North-South urban centers, such as the Southern cities having a greater concentration of lower income nonwhites than Northern cities as well as their differing industrial bases. The paper relates that income inequality in the United States contributes to a growing concern about the availability of both health and education services for those individuals existing at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder.
From the Paper
"The economy of the South became increasingly agriculture based during its development, while the North was moving towards industrialization and manufacturing sectors. Wendy Shaw's study of the distribution of affluence and affluent communities in the United States clearly illustrates the economic inequality resulting from geography. A map displaying the 155 most affluent counties in the United States shows a tendency for such counties to be geographically centered overwhelmingly in the Washington, D.C. to Boston megalopolis."
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Health Care Access for Low-Income Minorities, 2002.
This paper is a qualitative thesis, which assesses the impediments to health care access for low-income visible minorities in the United States.
30,578 words (approx. 122.3 pages), 135 sources, APA, AU$ 400.95
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Abstract
This paper, based in sociological and social psychology concepts, identifies the causal factors for the gap between lower-income Americans and members of visible minorities in the United States and more affluent Americans and members of the majority segment of the population with respect to health care access. The author concludes, after an extensive review of the literature, that a universal system of health care entitlement is required in the United States. The author suggests that an extensive education is required for low-income persons and members of visible minorities to know the benefits and function of health care services, and health care providers require education in the social mores of the diverse populations they must serve.
Table of Contents
Problem Delineation
Background on the Problem
Statement of the Problem
Research Questions
Review of Relevant Social Psychology Theory and Literature
Introduction
Sociological Theory and Health Care
The Welfare State
Accessing Contemporary Health Care
Role of Ethics in Accessing Health Care
Alternative Health Care Delivery Systems
Chapter Conclusions
Social Functioning of Low-Income and Visible Minority Population Groups
Introduction
HIV/AIDS Related Behavior
Initiatives to Improve Health Care Access and Behaviors
The American Health Care System and The Health Care Experiences of Low-Income and Visible Minority Population Groups
Introduction
The American Health Care System
Delivery of Health Care to the Poor
Care Quality
Alternative Approaches to Delivery
Bioethical Issues
Problems of Accessibility
Initiatives to Improve Access
Chapter Conclusions
Assessment of the Problem
Discussion
Recommendations for Further Research
Annotated Bibliography
From the Paper
"One of the major impediments to the attainment of universal access to healthcare in the United States is the functioning of for-profit Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) and managed care organizations (MCOs). These organizations are investor-owned organizations that are in business to make a profit on healthcare delivery. Non-for-profit healthcare organizations also must earn a profit on their operations in order to be able to compensate and train staff, acquire new technology, and generally improve the quality of their services. Unlike investor-owned healthcare companies, however, non-for-profit organizations are not driven by share prices and the bottom-line mentality of for-profit companies. Thus, patient-centered care in not-for-profit healthcare organizations may be contrasted with the investor orientation of the for-profit healthcare companies. Recent decisions by for-profit healthcare companies to drop their Medicare healthcare groups because of substandard profit growth illustrates as no amount of rhetoric can the precedent of investor concerns over patient concerns in the for-profit healthcare companies."
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