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The History of Skyscrapers, 2007.
A look at Manhattan's golden age of skyscrapers; 1910 to 1930.
3,153 words (approx. 12.6 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 133.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses how the skyscrapers of Manhattan were built for several reasons, including limited land, but also to show off power and wealth. The paper discusses how many skyscrapers there were in Manhattan by 1930 and whether there were concerns expressed about the impact of skyscrapers on the city and its people. The paper looks at how land values were affected by the boom in Manhattan skyscrapers and explores what it was like to work on the skyscrapers in Manhattan in the early 1900s. The paper notes that urban America will likely never see an architectural explosion like that again.
Outline:
How Many Skyscrapers Were There in Manhattan by 1930?
Were There Concerns Expressed about the Impact of Skyscrapers on the City and its People?
How Were Land Values Affected by the Boom in Manhattan Skyscrapers? What Was it Like to Work on the Skyscrapers in Manhattan in the Early 1900s?
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The skyscrapers of Manhattan were built for several reasons; the most pragmatic reason of course, was that the New York City (Manhattan) land area was very limited, and buildings had nowhere to go but up. Other pivotal reasons for the emergence of skyscrapers, according to author Karen Barss (www.infoplease.com), include these: "...big buildings have been used to show off power and wealth"; there has been shown in cities a need to "...stretch the limits of what's possible"; and there was a sense of "competition among owners, families, architects, and builders.""
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Skyscrapers, 2002.
A discussion of the origins of skyscrapers, their designs and designers.
1,135 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 3 sources, MLA, AU$ 57.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the origins of skyscrapers. Factors that made the building of skyscrapers possible, such as technological advancement, and advancements in manufacturing and architecture are outlined. Advantages to the building of skyscrapers over smaller buildings are discussed.
From the Paper
"Skyscrapers flourished in Chicago for a variety of reasons. ?The main technological advancement that made skyscrapers possible was the development of mass iron and steel production. New manufacturing processes made it possible to produce long beams of solid iron. Essentially, this gave architects a whole new set of building blocks to work with? (Harris). The development of elevators also played in the development of skyscrapers, because people could move more quickly and efficiently between floors, which is why skyscrapers are sometimes called ?elevator buildings.?"
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Firefighters and Skyscrapers, 2004.
An overview of firefighters concerns over the design and construction of high-rise buildings.
2,310 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 104.95
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Abstract
This paper attempts to examine why firefighters have voiced concerns regarding the ever-increasing size of skyscrapers. In particular, it looks at how, when the World Trade Centre Twin Towers, which were at the time two of the world's tallest buildings, were completely destroyed by a terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, the event should have raised enough doubt and questions about the future of high-rise safety to put an end to the construction of skyscrapers; yet, after September 11th, the world?s demand for newer and taller structures continued to dramatically increase.
Outline
Table of Content
Introduction
Twin Towers of New York
Building Construction Trends
Truss Construction
Firefighters Structural Analysis
Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix A
Appendix B
From the Paper
"The steel trusses that supported the flooring either melted or simply buckled which in turn released each upper floor down on the next below it and eventually falling completely to the ground. In other words, as the trusses failed, the concrete-slab floors literally plunged downward. When the two jets struck the buildings, the fact that they hit near the towers? tops, the weight of the floors became a force the buildings could not withstand. Although the towers went up easily utilizing these techniques, they were also the eventual cause of the buildings quick demise. The Twin Towers? radically different structural design created a situation where the load-bearing walls simply could not support the weight of the floors."
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Skyscrapers, 1999.
Examines history and evolution, major architects, building materials, regulations, styles and New York City buildings.
4,500 words (approx. 18.0 pages), 11 sources, AU$ 197.95
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Abstract
The term "skyscraper" first came into use in the 1880s as the first such buildings were constructed. Several forces and developments came into being at the same time to allow for the creation of such buildings. The term was first applied to buildings of 10 to 20 storeys, but heights have so increased that now it applies to buildings generally greater than 40 or 50 storeys. The skyscrapers of the 1880s and 1890s fit reasonably into the existing urban context, and their novelty was to be found in their technology rather than their size or style.
From the Paper
"THE SKYSCRAPER
The term "skyscraper" first came into use in the 1880s as the first such buildings were constructed. Several forces and developments came into being at the same time to allow for the creation of such buildings. The term was first applied to buildings of 10 to 20 storeys, but heights have so increased that now it applies to buildings generally greater than 40 or 50 storeys. The skyscrapers of the 1880s and 1890s fit reasonably into the existing urban context, and their novelty was to be found in their technology rather than their size or style. They were taller than what had existed before, but not so tall as to dominate the skyline. Previously, churches had been the tallest buildings in the city (Goldberger 4).
More business space was needed in the United States in the second half of the 19th ..."
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The Modern Steel-Girder Skyscraper, 2008.
Describes the steel-girder-based skyscraper, which the author believes to be America's most impressive engineering technical development.
2,125 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 96.95
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Abstract
This paper specifies that the author thinks the most remarkable American technological engineering achievement is the steel-girder-based skyscraper first erected in the 1880s by William le Baron Jenney. The author feels this way because the building shows the capacity of Americans to ingeniously find new ways of making products serve practical purposes. The paper describes Jenney's 1883 Home Insurance Building, constructed in Chicago, which is the very first building to employ steel skeleton construction and to resemble, in a rudimentary sense, the quintessential modern skyscraper. The paper relates that this building is a prototypical example of nineteenth-century American capitalism and industry at work.
From the Paper
"Unsurprisingly, the earliest tall structures were comprised of masonry characterized by "the thick walls of the lower stories usurping a disproportionate amount of floor space." Obviously, it became imperative to design structures that would permit thinner walls to exist throughout the entire height of the building. Initially, architects used cast iron along with masonry; later, they used cage construction whereby an iron frame supported the floors of the structure and the masonry walls had only to bear their own weight."
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Skyscraper: Citicorp Center, 2002.
A look at the history behind the building of the Citicorp Center skyscraper.
1,150 words (approx. 4.6 pages), 4 sources, AU$ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the existence as well as the structure of the Citicorp Center. Furthermore, the paper will outline the challenges that the people in charge of this skyscraper faced along their way to the victory stand by highlighting the major events that explain the historical background of the Citicorp Center.
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The Business Skyline, 2002.
This paper examines the development of skyscrapers or superstructures in two American cities: Chicago and New York City.
3,225 words (approx. 12.9 pages), 9 sources, APA, AU$ 134.95
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Abstract
This paper describes Chicago and New York City?s revolutionary skyscraper architecture. It explains the history of each city and emphasizes their development and planning. The paper illustrates each city?s history relating to its grid and individual events and explains how the skyscraper came into existence in each city and changed our urban world. The paper use historical illustrations and maps along with the written essay to describe the growth of skyscrapers in both cities
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. City Planning
III. Chicago?s Early City Planning
IV. New York City?s Early City Planning
V. How Skyscraper Height Evolved
VI. Skyscrapers in Chicago
VII. Skyscrapers in New York City
VIII. Skyscrapers Take Form
IX. Chicago?s Interior Form
X. New York City?s Interior Form
XI. A Final Thought
XII. Bibliography
XIII. Picture References
From the Paper
"Architecture is an interesting art form due to its strong ties with the construction industry, which in turn a product of the socioeconomic behavior of a society. One of the grandest architectural accomplishments is the design and completion of a superstructure, known as the skyscraper. Since the turn of the century, the city fabric of two American cities, Chicago and New York City, have been involved in a heated race towards the sky. These superstructures continue to grow in size and in number due to advances in materials, structural designs, and technology. The function of the skyscraper is to serve as a commercial purpose. As these buildings cast heavy shadows over the busy city landscape, people notice their dominance and power. To the general public, big is good; in terms of building, the taller the better. Many people agree, as well as deny, that the skylines of Chicago and New York City are similar. To expose which acquisition is true, one first needs to discover how the skylines of these two cities have developed."
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Art Deco and Architecture, 2004.
An account of the intersection of Art Deco design and skyscrapers.
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 17 sources, MLA, AU$ 115.95
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Abstract
This paper provides an account of the of Art Deco design and the development of skyscrapers. The paper looks at the cultural and artistic context of art deco, design motifs and metal construction and its impact. The paper provides examples of some buildings.
From the Paper
The purpose of this research is to examine the Art Deco architecture style and the development of the skyscraper, chiefly in the United States. The plan of the research will be to set forth the cultural and artistic context in which Art Deco was defined as well as the discourse of skyscraper architecture and then to discuss not only the architectural theories and theorist practitioners whose ideas informed debate over skyscraper construction but also the popular and professional reaction to the buildings at the time they were constructed.
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Boston Architecture, 2004.
This paper discusses two Boston architecture sites: Trinity Church and the John Hancock skyscraper in Copley Square.
1,305 words (approx. 5.2 pages), 8 sources, MLA, AU$ 64.95
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Abstract
The paper explains that Trinity Church (1876) remains a historical wonder of religion and beauty, but the John Hancock skyscraper is both aesthetically unpleasant and structurally unsound. The author points out that the Trinity Church heralded the signature "Richardsonian Romanesque" style of its celebrated designer, H. H. Richardson, and presented a bold, fresh, new face and feeling for ecclesiastical architecture in America. The paper relates that neighboring the Trinity Church is the modern minimalist John Hancock skyscraper (1976), by far the tallest building in all of Boston, with a facade of blue reflective glass that makes it look like a giant test tube, a bizarre juxtaposition in style and purpose.
From the Paper
"The original Trinity Church in Boston was built by John Indicott in the 1700?s. However, in 1860 the Vestry voted to move the church to a new location. In January of 1872, a 24,800 square foot plot of land was purchased in Boston, having been carefully chosen as the site for the church, and soon after committee meetings began to review architectural plans for the building. Gambrill and Richardson, a firm of H. H. Richardson, was commissioned to design the church. Additional funds were set aside for the building, allowing an additional plot of land to be purchased, adding nearly 15,000 feet to the original plan. The church is surrounded on all sides by streets, not other buildings that would restrict the view of the church. In April of 1873, engineers began driving wooden pilings, most of which were completed from July to September of this year. However, the Vestry became discouraged by the building cost estimates -- ranging from a soaring $355,000 to $640,000 -- and they halted work on the building until Richardson revised his plans, capping off the new estimates around $400,000. In November of 1876, the building was finally complete, and it was paid in full by February of 1877."
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Online Advertising, 2003.
Describes current trends in online advertising and assesses their overall effectiveness.
5,750 words (approx. 23.0 pages), 20 sources, APA, AU$ 197.95
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Abstract
This paper describes current trends in online advertising and assesses their overall effectiveness. It looks at the development of first banner ads and recent developments such as floating ads, superstitials, interstitials, centered rectangular ads, pop-under ads, skyscrapers, super-sized banners, surround sessions and text ads. The paper looks at the effect of broadband adoption and discusses the key to successful Web advertising.
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Building Types and Structures, 2006.
This paper discusses the type and structure of several buildings from many ages, locations and functions.
3,295 words (approx. 13.2 pages), 21 sources, MLA, AU$ 137.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the Cathedral of Florence in Italy; the Thirumalai Nayak Palace in Madurai, India; the Empire State Building in New York City, United States of America, which is one the precursors of the great skyscrapers or high-rises of the world; the Louvre Museum in Paris and the designer hospitals of today, using as an example the Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC) in Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America. The author points out that the analysis of these structures is based on the structure's history, its design and architecture, the cost that the people of the country incurred when they were constructing it and the time that it took to complete. The paper concludes that the design and the principles of a structure are vitally important to the basic effectiveness of the building. The paper includes many illustrations and a graph.
From the Paper
"What this entailed was that the entire structure could be built without a need for scaffolding at the bottom. Reinforcements of iron and tension chains of stone were also utilized for the construction of the Dome, and finally, it was completed in 1436. Now Bruneschelli required a lantern to be fixed over the Dome, and his design was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses, and eight high arched windows. The work on the lantern was completed after the architect's death, by Verocchio in 1469, and it was designed later to contain holy relics."
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New York City?s Zoning and Setback Laws, 2004.
This paper discusses the history of the use of zoning and setback laws that shape New York City and its architecture.
1,670 words (approx. 6.7 pages), 4 sources, MLA, AU$ 79.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that New York City was the first community in the nation to institute a zoning ordinance, the New York 1916 Zoning Resolution, to establish specific height and setback controls on all buildings in an attempt to create a barrier that would stop manufacturing and industry from encroaching on Manhattan's office and department store district. The author points out that New York had the unique problem of skyscrapers blocking sunlight; therefore, the zoning ordinance laid down rules that buildings would forever be shaped similarly to a wedding cake, layered toward the top in like a stair-step method. The paper explains that newer zoning requirements must take into consideration the idea of environmental and resident protection, social and economic well-being, and the use of natural resources, such as ponds and wildlife habitats.
From the Paper
"There were attempts by newly disgruntled landowners, those who were zoned out of profits, to try to label the new zoning ordinances as unconstitutional. One specific case set the precedence for the rest of the country. In a small town in Ohio, the local government passed a zoning ordinance and the result devalued some sixty-eight acres of land that was owned by an Ambler Realty Company. Ambler Realty Company subsequently sued the town Euclid because they claimed that their land was literally taken and that the zoning ordinance was in violation of the Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution. Ambler Realty Company?s argument was the literal interpretation of the Constitution, which says that private property cannot be revoked for public use unless the party revoking the land provides due or just compensation."
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Bystander Apathy, 2003.
Argues against the idea that bystanders should be held legally responsible for not assisting in an emergency.
1,435 words (approx. 5.7 pages), 6 sources, APA, AU$ 69.95
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Abstract
Emergencies happen every day, all around the world. Not too long ago, the worst emergency erupted inside the United States in the form of airplanes and skyscrapers. The Red Cross, Salvation Army, paramedics, and many other humanitarian groups rushed to help the sick and injured while the 9/11 attacks were still taking place. The nature of humans is to help their fellow person when he or she is in trouble. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. ?Bystander apathy? takes place when people witness an emergency and take no action to help the needy. The larger question, though, is whether one should be held legally responsible for not assisting in an emergency. The author of the paper disagrees with the logic that says one should be held accountable because people are not always sure what an emergency entails, exactly. Moreover, innocent civilians should not be forced into a situation that could potentially put the rescuer in harm's way. This paper argues in favor of the proposition that innocent bystanders should not be held legally responsible for not assisting in an emergency.
From the Paper
"Deindividuation?or ?loss of one?s sense of individuality and personal accountability that can sometimes occur in large, noisy, emotional crowds??has been seen in courts as a reasonable plea for one?s inappropriate actions (Colman, 1991). South African murder trials, in particular, have seen the argument that large crowds of people cloud people?s sense of right and wrong and their ability to act rationally is diminished. According to psychologist Graham Tyson?s testimony, ?it was quite plausible that they did not appreciate that death could ensue from their actions,? referring to a defendant accused of murdering a police informer (Colman, 1991). We see from here that large crowds manipulate the normal, cognitive functioning of the brain and make people act in a completely different, and unusual, manner."
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Police Departments, 2004.
Compares the Los Angeles Police Department with the New York Police Department.
2,900 words (approx. 11.6 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 124.95
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Abstract
In order to examine the structures and operations of police departments in the United States, this paper distinguishes metropolitan areas, such as New York, with crowded conditions and skyscrapers and tenements fighting for space, with Los Angeles, which is an area of hundreds of square miles covered by cops in cars, helicopters and speed boats. The paper examines the similarities and differences between the LAPD and the NYPD. It also provides a numbered point-by-point summary of these comparisons.
From the Paper
"Bratton, first appointed by then-newly elected Mayor, Rudolph Giuliani, also was aware of the old saying "don't stick your neck out". As he said, "It's the first principle in running a police department." However, he did stick his neck out in favor of a highly centralized police department, just the opposite of LA's plan for the future. Centralization seemed important for rapid response units and their growth throughout the city. In New York, Centralization also meant (and in some areas still does) that the best cops were in the neighborhoods they knew, where they were respected, and were on call for emergencies, as well as for routine assignments".
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The Implications of a Post-Industrial Economy, 2006.
An attempt to understand the evolution and origins of the post-industrial era.
2,475 words (approx. 9.9 pages), 6 sources, AU$ 142.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how the post-industrial era is not merely a buzzword that conjures up images of skyscrapers, office cubicles and white-collar employees living the life. However, the sociological ramifications reach beyond these superficial images. This paper tries to understand the evolution and origins of the post-industrial era and delve into the effects of this type of economy on the constituents of this work force, their lifestyle and the surrounding community.
From the Paper
"Over the centuries, man has continually developed collectively. The first small communities as nomadic foragers and hunters were primarily concerned with survival. These communes essentially lived day to day and sought protection in numbers not from other communes, but from inherent dangers in nature such as predators. Their numbers also meant more success in hunting."
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Inner Districts of Chicago, 2005.
This paper looks at the conditions of life in the inner districts of Chicago during the years 1900 to 1930.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 11 sources, AU$ 64.95
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Abstract
The following paper discusses the inner districts of Chicago from 1900 to 1930. In this essay, the writer looks at the work 'The Jungle' by Upton Sinclair and in the showdown of the skyscrapers. The focus is placed on life in the slums. The writer points out that the slums were dirty, crowded and an ideal breeding ground for disease.
From the Paper
"The inner districts of Chicago from 1900-1930 demonstrated how cities in the in early 20th century were places of great contradictions. Industrialization brought economic prosperity and work but the living and the environmental conditions were terrible. The fact, that the living conditions within Chicago's inner districts were so terrible was depicted in 'The Jungle' by Upton Sinclair. For example, when the family was traveling on the train to their new home in the slums Sinclair states, down every side street they could see, it was the same,-never a hill and never a hollow, but always the same endless vista of ugly and dirty little wooden buildings."
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