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False Memory Effects, 2003.
An investigation and explanation of false memory and why people use it.
1,100 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 2 sources, MLA, AU$ 41.95
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Abstract
This paper explores what false memory is and how and why we use it. It also explores the difference between semantic and phonological processing. The effects of false memory and the varying factors influencing it including thought processing and time before encoding are investigated and discussed thoroughly. The papers also compares this experiement to other similar studies. The results are consistent across all participants and support the theory of false memory effects efficiently.
From the Paper
"One hypothesis that can be looked at is: HA: False memory effects are influenced by the depth of processing at encoding. HO: False memory effects are not influenced by the depth of processing at encoding. This can be studied by looking at the empirical results and searching for a large difference between the amount of unstudied critical words and the amount of unstudied unrelated words that are "remembered" across the field of participants. Another hypothesis that can be tested is: HA: False memory effects occur for phonological as well as semantic associates of encoding lists. HO: False memory effects occur for only phonological associates of encoding lists. From the results, it cannot be proven that these types of false memory effects absolutely exist, but can be strongly argued that they do. The larger amount of participants used the better the result that we can achieve."
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The Repressed/False Memory Debate and its Crucial Consensus, 2002.
Explores the nature of repressed memory and the ability of therapists to distinguish between true and false childhood memories.
3,650 words (approx. 14.6 pages), 9 sources, AU$ 144.95
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Abstract
Summary: The repressed/false memory debate is marked by sharp polarities of what Loftus terms firm believers and skeptics who "point to the reconstructive nature of memory and ask for evidence and corroboration". The debate is far from theoretical since individual's reputations and futures are at stake. While the claims and arguments on both sides of the controversy will be discussed, the purpose here is to explore the nature of memory, repression and dissociation to determine if therapists can distinguish between true and false memories of childhood trauma.
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False Memory Formation, 2008.
This paper discusses the effect of semantic relatedness on false memory formation.
1,337 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper describes a research that examined how some words can be falsely recalled during a memory recollection test. The writer explains that, in the research, one 23-year-old student completed an Internet based test that presented a sequence of words followed by a grid of 16 words. The writer notes that the participant selected which words in the grid had previously been shown. The participant correctly recalled 71.43% of previously presented words, 2.08% of non-semantically related words and 66.66% of semantically related words. The writer concludes that false memories are easy to create for words that are highly semantically related. The writer maintains that these results add weight to the semantic model of memory and arguments against other models of memory. Further, the writer notes that these results have important implications in the identification of suspects during criminal investigations.
Outline:
Abstract
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Appendix
From the Paper
"Endo and Masao demonstrated that knowledge about the false memory phenomena could alter results. They informed one group of participants about the false memory phenomena but not the other. Half of each group were then asked to respond within four seconds, the other within eight as to whether they 'remembered' seeing the word. Results showed that in the slow condition false memory rates were lower within the forewarned group compared to the uniformed group. However in the fast condition there was no significant difference between the forewarned and uninformed group. Thus in the current experiment the participant is likely to have made more errors had he been uninformed of the false memory phenomena and under time pressure. This would explain why these results do not vary more significantly in comparison to other research. Similarly how words are presented can affect results."
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Can A Therapist Implant False Memories?, 2004.
A research proposal for studying whether a therapist can implant false memories.
5,650 words (approx. 22.6 pages), 22 sources, APA, AU$ 146.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a research proposal for looking at whether or not a therapist can implant false memories in a patient. The paper evaluates the issue and suggests a methodology for studying this issue.
From the Paper
"Davis and Dalgleish state that false memory syndrome is one of the most controversial issues in the mental health field, noting that essentially it involves recollection of memories usually of sexual abuse that were either falsely programmed or which are legitimately recovered. Bjorklund spells the notion of false memory syndrome out in more detail conceptualizing it as a condition in which an individual's identity and interpersonal relationships center around a..."
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Separating False Recollection from True Memory, 2002.
Analyzes Repressed Memory Syndrome and the problems involved in using memories as evidence.
1,900 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 5 sources, AU$ 76.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes the so-called "Repressed Memory Syndrome." The author discusses how the issue is controversial in that as the so-called victims are winning large settlements in courts, the number of therapists and cases is rising dramatically. While most psychiatrists admit that repressing traumatic memories does indeed happen, many do not believe in the existence of Repressed Memory Syndrome. The paper makes this case by discussing a slew of psychiatric evidence, all of which suggests that memory is not absolute, memories can certainly be created and that the tools therapists use to revive memories can actually help create them. The most damning evidence against RMS has been findings which suggest that the social and legal goals of the rememberer can influence memory. The author closes by arguing that more research needs to be done into how memories are created and how they can be distinguished from false ones, so that actual victims of child abuse need not be trivializes.
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Repressed Memories: Real, Imagined, or False?, 2004.
An examination of the concept of repressed memories in psychological terms.
1,068 words (approx. 4.3 pages), 11 sources, MLA, AU$ 40.95
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Abstract
This essay looks into the validity of repressed and recovered memories and looks at some of the recent research that has been conducted in this area.
From the Paper
"Repression was considered by Freud to be the most basic and important defense strategy, in which memories too frightening or painful are excluded from an individual's conscious awareness. Although repression is the fundamental concept behind psychoanalysis, it is rarely entirely successful on its own and is often employed with other defense mechanisms to prevent the repressed memories 'breaking through' into consciousness (Erdelyi, 1985). Successful repression of traumatic memories can affect an individual at unconscious, semiconscious and, according to some, physiological levels (Pennebaker & O'Heeron, 1984)."
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Repressed Memory Speech, 2007.
This paper looks at informative speech and discusses repressed or recovered ('false') memories.
812 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, AU$ 30.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer explains that for therapists, true memories can provide clues as to why patients are suffering from a variety of psychological problems. The writer notes that helping clients gain a clearer understanding requires greater and more detailed insight into the patient's past. Further, the writer points out that most clinical psychologists believe that children can learn to block memories as a survival mechanism and repression, which may cease to be helpful in adult life. Away from the traumatic environment, adults may find their memories resurfacing, either gradually in fragments, or suddenly in vivid flashbacks. The writer maintains that the issue of repressed memory remains controversial, even with the American Psychological Association itself. The writer then concludes that the real truth may be that not all cases are false and not all cases are true, but when dealing with the complex and suggestible process of memory and recall, it can be difficult to discern truth from fiction.
From the Paper
"The debate over so-called recovered memory syndrome leaves therapists in a bind. Even the name of the syndrome is controversial. Advocates who say the memories are real call the memories repressed, those who say the memories are false call the memories planted. In 1996, Susan Clancy, then a psychology fellow at Harvard, tried to find a way to see if some people were more prone to re-create memories than other people. She tested women who said they had repressed and then recovered memories of sexual abuse, and control groups who said they were either never sexually abused or had never forgotten their abuse. All were asked to study, memorize and then recite back a list of related words, like candy, sugar, cookie and brownie, that were related to the word sweet--but never the word sweet itself. Everybody had a tendency to falsely remember that the word sweet was one of the words that had been listed, but the women who claimed to have recovered memories of sexual abuse were significantly more likely than the control groups to be very, very confident that the critical word sweet was falsely on that list."
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The Psychology of Memory, 2006.
A discussion regarding the sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 1 source, AU$ 38.95
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Abstract
This paper looks closely at a chapter describing the inner workings of our human memory, and the three component system that we utilize to retail information. Using sensory memory, working memory and long-term memory we can learn to better encode information in order to be more successful students. The more meaning we can attach to our memories, the stronger memories they become.
From the Paper
"Memories can seem to be fleeting moments, shocking us when we can not seem to recall the most standard pieces of information, or surprisingly dense, as when details one thought completely unimportant rise clearly into our thoughts. Understanding the processes behind memory can aid our quests to recall specific information similarly to how an information processing system such as a computer or database works. Through a clear understanding of the three component model of memory--sensory memory, working or short term memory and long term memory--one can apply this awareness towards creating specific rehearsal and encoding cues which will be more likely to remain stable in our long term memory. While the processes of memory have been speculated upon for centuries, a current model describes memory utilizing technological imagery. "
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Recovered Memory, 2008.
A discussion of recovered memory and repressed memory.
773 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 7 sources, APA, AU$ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the mental faculty of recovered memory and the neurological mechanisms involved in retaining and recalling past experiences. It takes a particular look at the controversy among psychologists regarding repressed memory and whether or not it actually exists. The paper asserts that much scientific research supports the validity of repressed memory. The paper also points out, however, that this research does not address whether repressed memories are true or false, such as in the case of testimonies when dealing with abuses or crimes. The paper concludes that such accounts should indeed be taken very seriously and should be critically examined in relation to other evidence.
From the Paper
"False memories are memories that were distorted or even created within and outside of the therapeutic context. Patients with psychological distress see a therapist as a source of help in their search for an "effort at meaning" (Clansy, cited in Furtado, 2003). Patients' memory is extremely susceptible that the subtlest suggestion made by a doctor can alter or create false experiences such as memories of abuse. They can be created by the use of several techniques, such as recovered memory therapy, hypnosis, guided imagery, and dream interpretation (Davis, Loftus, & Follette, 2001). An experiment carried out by Dr. Nader and Dr. Shafe may give a neurobiological insight into how memories are updated. Using the fear conditioning process, they trained rats to associate a tone with an electric shock. Once the memory was consolidated, they presented the tone and immediately injected a drug that would inhibit the production of proteins. The fact that the animals reacted instead of freezing at the sound implied that the memories became vulnerable to suggestions, and that the production of new proteins were needed to store them back into long-term storage (Blakeslee, 2000)."
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The Memory of Children, 2006.
This paper summarizes and critiques recent journal articles and books about social influences on memory in children.
4,605 words (approx. 18.4 pages), 7 sources, APA, AU$ 129.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that children in the pre-operational stage of development (ages 2-6) are limited in their ability to think and perceive because they are both egocentric and intuitive, seeing the world only in black and white, and because they believe that all things, both animate and inanimate, have the ability to think and fee. (animism). The author points out that the development of memory in children makes them susceptible to social influences and the recollection of false memories; therefore, children are particularly affected by suggestibility and interviewer bias. The paper suggests future investigation of childhood memory assessment as it relates to education and to children being interviewed in familiar surroundings. The paper includes several long quotations.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Social Influences on Memory in Children
Future Research
Conclusion
From the Paper
"As it relates to interviewer bias, the article asserts the interviewer bias occurs when an interviewer has a priori of beliefs concerning and event and because of these beliefs fashion the interview to exploit disclosures from the interviewee that are consistent with the interviewer's aforementioned beliefs. The article contends that one characteristic of interviewer bias is the attempt to collect only confirmatory evidence and to evade all questions that may generate disconfirmatory evidence."
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False Confessions, 2006.
This paper reviews an experiment relating to false confessions as conducted and reported by Saul M. Kassin and Katherine L. Kiechel (1996) in the article "The Social Psychology of False Confessions: Compliance, Internalization, and Confabulation".
1,040 words (approx. 4.2 pages), 1 source, APA, AU$ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper examines research about coerced-internalized false confessions, which occur when innocent suspects actually believe that he or she is guilty of the crime; many of which are the result of police interrogation in which deceptive and deceitful practices may be used and accepted by the judicial system. The author points out that the article "The Social Psychology of False Confessions" tested the hypothesis that the presentation of false evidence can lead individuals who are vulnerable to confess to an act, which they did not commit, and, more important, to internalize the confession and perhaps confabulate details in memory consistent with that new belief. The paper relates that the researchers used an experimental method, which the paper describes, and concludes that this experiment was well-executed and well-reported.
From the Paper
"There were two independent variables in this experiment. First, the subject's level of vulnerability was manipulated by varying the pace of the task. Therefore, the confederate read at either a fast or slow pace. Second, the experimenters varied the use of false incrimination evidence. The confederates either "witnessed" or acknowledged the mistake or some confederates did not "witness", or see the subject touch the ALT key. The dependent variable was the confessions. Three forms of social influence were evaluated: compliance, internalization, and confabulation. To assess compliance, the experimenter handwrote a confession and asked the subject to sign it. "
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Autobiographical Memory, 2002.
This paper discusses autobiographical memory, one's ability to store information for events and issues related to one's self.
1,445 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 5 sources, APA, AU$ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that autobiographical memory includes, not only memories for specific experiences, but also memories for the personal facts of one's life. The author points out that the brain uses two forms of memory storage: Semantic memory and episodic memory. The paper relates that autobiographical memories are some of the most important memories we have because they include our self-image, our knowledge of the world around us, and the recall of emotional and specific events, which help to influence our lives.
From the Paper
"Episodic memory plays a role in autobiographical memory in a number of ways. First, parts of autobiographical memories involve "flashbulb memories", or the memory for a situation in which we had high emotion or surprise. For example, one may remember the day in which the World Trade center was attacked. The memory of this event includes information such as the place of the event, the event which was interrupted by the high emotion, where one received the news, the feelings associated with the news, and the emotions of those around them."
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Memory: How Reliable Is It ?, 2003.
Explores human memory and questions the reliability of memory.
1,450 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 52.95
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Abstract
This paper explains human memory and discusses how it is formed. It explores the mysteries the mechanisms of memory, the different levels of memory, and its reliability.
From the Paper
"According to the article by Dr. Helen Silvia, the temporal lobe is a region of the brain that presents a significant involvement with memory. It is localized under the temporal bone (above the ears) so named because hair in this region frequently is the first ones to become gray with time. There is considerable evidence pointing to this region as being particularly important for the storage of past events. The temporal lobe includes the temporal neocortex, which could potentially be the region involved with long-term memory."
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Alcohol and Memory, 2002.
Studies the effects of alcohol on memory and the variants of the concepts 'alcohol' and 'memory' in pscychological research, using articles as references.
775 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 6 sources, AU$ 33.95
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Abstract
In experimental psychology research that studies the effects of alcohol on memory, there are significant differences in the ways "alcohol" and 'memory' are conceptualized. In the articles reviewed here, this paper will be drawing attention to the differences of context, that is, how the researchers have identified the relations of alcohol and alcoholism in contexts of studying memory processes.
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Psychological Interrogation & False Confessions: A Literature Review, 2001.
A review of literature on psychological interrogation methods, false confessions and their implications.
4,738 words (approx. 19.0 pages), 28 sources, APA, AU$ 131.95
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Abstract
The paper shows that while the use of psychological interrogation methods is currently permissible by the courts in Canada, Great Britain and the U.S.A., many researchers argue that psychological interrogation is, in essence, no different than blatant coercion. Confession Law has slowly evolved over time alongside the evolution of interrogation methods. The paper discusses how prior to the 18th Century, English Common Law accepted confessions without any restrictions, which allowed confessions extracted through torture to be accepted as viable representations of objective truth. Today, the bottom line on the admissibility of confessions is that they are "typically excluded if elicited by physical violence, by a threat of harm or punishment, by a promise of leniency or immunity from prosecution, or by failure to notify a suspect of his or her constitutional rights to counsel and silence" (Kassin & McNall, 1991). The paper shows that despite these seemingly stringent laws regarding the admissibility of confessions, psychological interrogation methods are adept at circumventing the law, and continue to employ methods that run the risk of eliciting false confessions. This paper reviews the literature on Psychological Interrogation methods, false confessions and the implications of both.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Psychological Interrogation Tactics
Inside the Interrogation Room
Custodial Legal Advice & The Right to Silence
Psychological Interrogation Functioning as Coercion
Police Interrogations and Confessions
Communicating Promises and Threats by Pragmatic Implication
False Confessions
Occurrence of False Confessions
Creation of False Confessions
An Empirical Study On Recall
Discourse Study
Interrogative Suggestibility & Delinquent Boys
Psychological Characteristics of False Confessors
Consequences of False Confessions
From the Paper
"Interrogation, as defined by the Merriam Webster Dictionary, is the act of "questioning; formally and systematically." Interrogations within criminal justice systems are used to gather information relevant to investigations, and more importantly, to elicit confessions from suspects. Methods of interrogation have changed drastically throughout history, but the ultimate goal of obtaining confessions has held constant. While the whips and chains of the past have now exited the western world's interrogation rooms, many scholars argue that today's suspects are still subjected to psychological tortures. Psychological Interrogation is the most recent approach used by law enforcement officials to extract information from suspects."
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Short-Term Memory and Aging, 2008.
A discussion of the possible causes for short-term memory loss in old age.
2,550 words (approx. 10.2 pages), 11 sources, APA, AU$ 83.95
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Abstract
This paper addresses short-term memory loss among the elderly. The paper points out that the habit of viewing difficulties of short-term memory loss as normal in aging is countered by knowledge of the phenomenon as a frequent indication of changes in other memory functions. The paper mentions current models, which address short-term memory in relation to brain connectivity, such that impaired short-term memory may be read as a sign for other alterations in memory or brain function that are more significant. The paper looks into a variety of causes in order to gain a better conceptualization of a condition that is a frequent symptom, rather than a disorder all its own. The paper concludes that symptoms involving cognition and memory indicate something, and are not reducible to old models of steady decline, especially mental decline, in old age.
From the Paper
"An aging North American population and much research attention given to Alzheimer's and dementia have produced considerable knowledge of help in understanding other conditions of brain function including mental and nervous disorder. Grady, Furey Et Al (2001) examined altered brain connectivity and the decline of short-term memory of a sample of Alzheimer's patients and a normal control group. Alzheimer's disorder is increasing defined as a syndrome of dysfunctional connectivity within the brain whose most apparent indication is often much impaired short-term memory. Given the technology available to neurologists and neuro-psychiatrists of today, much more is understood of what happens to the memory of the Alzheimer's patient in addition to knowledge allowing us to know more of the normal or aging person who does not present the condition. Delays in cognitive processing due to Alzheimer's changes affect other aspects of memory. For instance, impairment in the functioning of the prefrontal cortex of means the patient cannot recognize a once familiar face, or the face of a caregiver or other individual that is seen daily."
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