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Nok Terracottas, 2005.
A look at one of the earliest known art forms in Africa, Nok Terracotta.
1,219 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 65.95
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Abstract
This paper compares the Nok art from with other African art forms, and identifies specific traits associated with the Nok terracottas. Additionally, the paper discusses the cultural data these sculptures provide about the civilizations that made them.
From the Paper
"Nok terracottas are generally defined by four main characteristics. First, Nok sculptures are created with very distinguishable eye features. The eyes are either triangular in nature, or are a part of a circular form. The eyebrows are sculpted to balance against the lower lip, and often, the eyebrows form a circular pattern around the inset triangular eye frame."
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"The Mummies of Urmuchai", 2005.
A critical review of Elizabeth Wayland Barber's book about mummies discovered during an archaeological dig at the rim of the Tarim Basin.
1,525 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 2 sources, MLA, AU$ 79.95
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Abstract
This paper briefly describes the archaeological find of Elizabeth Wayland Barber and her team of fellow archaeologists along the rim of the Tarim Basin, also known as the 'Silk Road'. The paper then critically reviews Barber's book about the find, "The Mummies of Urmuchai" and the conclusions Barber drew, based on the evidence she gathered, about the geographical origins and practices of the mummies of Urmachai.
From the Paper
"The Chinese archeologists who uncovered the gravesite at Cherchen were at first unaware of what they had found. These graves contained extremely tall, apparently Caucasian bodies that were later dated as over 3,500 years old, despite the fact that they were so well preserved. This preservation was not entirely by design, although the corpses were painted with yellow lines that were intended to have preservative qualities. The extraordinary preservation was also accomplished by luck and happenstance-the graves had been cut into a salt bed that speeded the process of desiccation, or preservation by packing in salt."
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Roman and Anglo-Saxon Archaeology, 2004.
An analysis of the Anglo-Saxon reuse of Roman buildings in the 5th to 8th centuries.
5,023 words (approx. 20.1 pages), 25 sources, MLA, AU$ 198.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the fact that the Anglo-Saxons reused Roman buildings over the time period from the 5th century to the 8th century in the Upper Thames Valley in Great Britain. The paper investigates the towns in this area and analyzes the reasons why some of the towns were brought back to use, whereas others were not. It also examines the manner in which the buildings were reused, the process of change over time and the differences between the reuse of housing as compared to public buildings. Finally, it provides a conclusion drawn from the research.
Outline
Introduction
Manner and Method of Anglo-Saxon Roman Building Reuse
Reuse of the Roman Buildings in Towns of the Upper Thames Valley
Motivation Behind Reuse
The Process of Change Over Time
The Disuse of Housing
Conclusion and Analysis
From the Paper
"Past studies have implied that these Roman ruins were important to medieval builders simply as cheap and convenient sources of stone. Building materials were selected according to their qualities and availabilities, and in some instances, because of particular qualities. In many cases, however, the functionality of particular material overrode the aesthetic qualities and durability of a particular material. Research indicates that a building stone used initially because of particular aesthetic qualities may be reused at a later date purely for convenience and necessity. An additional value to the examination of building materials, where it can be shown they are reused is that the presence of reused materials may indicate the presence of archaeological sites that are currently unknown (Windsor, 2004). "
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Egyptian Medicine, 2004.
Examines medical tools and procedures used in ancient Egypt.
1,734 words (approx. 6.9 pages), 8 sources, MLA, AU$ 88.95
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Abstract
Civilizations throughout the years have dealt with disease and illness in numerous ways. This paper examines the ancient Egyptians and determines how they practiced medicine during their time and how it relates to modern medicine. The paper also examines the materials or tools involved in their medical practices, major medical discoveries and methods used by physicians to heal patients.
Introduction
Discoveries
Practises of Medicine
Physicians and Priests
Embalming and Autopsies
Rituals
Magicians
Keeping Records
Important Documents
Understanding the Body
Medication and Treatments
Diseases
Holistic Treatments
Tools
Herbal Medicines
Conclusion
References
From the Paper
"Ancient physicians prescribed many remedies that are still in use today. Then, as now, honey and milk were used for the irritation of the throat and respiratory infections. The physicians also knew how to "use suppositories, herbal dressings and enemas and widely used castor oil (crystalinks.com/egyptmedicine.html)." Medications were used to treat Egyptians suffering from a parasite which attacked the urinary tract, and this parasite still plagues the Egyptians of today."
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The Stepped Pyramid of Djoser, 2005.
An examination of the great Step-Pyramid of Djoser, designed by Imhotep and the belief system it represented.
1,240 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 66.95
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Abstract
This paper asserts that the ancient Egyptian sage Imhotep has two unique claims to fame: 1) he provides historians with the best documented instance of the deification of a man, and 2) he is the first known individual of genius. In a truly ironic fashion, the mortal man who designed the Great Step Pyramid as a tomb for the godlike Pharaoh Djoser was transformed into a god almost 2,000 years later and became the Egyptian god of healing. This paper provides an overview of the sage and vizier, Imhotep, the Great Step-Pyramid and its reflection of the belief systems in place at the time. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion. The paper includes a photograph of the pyramid.
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Imhotep
Step Pyramid of Djoser and Its Reflection of the Belief System
Personal Reasons for Selecting This Topic
Conclusion
From the Paper
"In sum, it is certainly not an exaggeration to describe the Step Pyramid as a one of the most remarkable architectural works produced by the ancient Egyptians. "That later generations regarded it with exceptional esteem is dear, not only from the veneration which they accorded to Imhotep, but also from hieratic graffiti on the passage walls of the southern building, which record the admiration felt by some Egyptians who visited the monument more than a thousand years after it was built" (Edwards 1955:63). In fact, no other known pyramid has been found with the same quantity of imposing buildings designed specifically to supply the needs of the king in his after-life. In their stead, the kings who ruled two dynasties later were satisfied with pictorial representations simply carved in relief."
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The Sheela-na-gig, 2005.
An overview of the historical heritage concerning the Sheela-na-gig sculptures and carvings in literature.
4,730 words (approx. 18.9 pages), 48 sources, MLA, AU$ 190.95
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Abstract
The discovery and the cataloging of the distribution and significance of the Sheela-na-gig and other architectural antiquities through the Irish Ordinance Survey place the interpretation of these sculptures and carvings in an exciting but problematic light. The purpose of this paper, which investigates some of the problematics of the origins of the Sheela-na-gig's, is to flesh out the central aspects of the Celtic heritage of these figures and to provide a basis for more in-depth discussion of various aspects. The focus is the historical heritage and the way in which this debate impacts the interpretation of the meaning and significance of the figures.
Outline
Introduction: The Problem of Historical Heritage
Early Discoveries and the Irish Ordinance Survey
George Petrie: Antiquarianism and Cultural Nationalism
The Importance of Petrie's Influence
Fethard and the Kiltinan Sheela-na-gig
Patterns of Interpretation
From the Paper
"The origins and antecedents of the Sheela-na-gig are steeped in antiquity. One prevailing view is that these figures relate to the pre-Christian or Pagan heritage of Europe. There is also general agreement that the statues can be seen as part of the stratified accumulation of religious history, with the Christian religion as the latest strata or overlay of the religious and pagan history of the region. This would also imply that the transition from pagan to Christian was not strict and clearly demarcated, with the result that many pagan figures and symbols were retained within the Christian context. Joan Marler verifies this point."
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The Cemeteries of Qumran, 2005.
A review of the journal article called "Celibacy: Confusion Laid To Rest?," written by Joe Zias and published in the "Dead Sea Discoveries" journal.
1,166 words (approx. 4.7 pages), 1 source, MLA, AU$ 63.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a positive review of an article about the most recent discoveries made at the Qumran Cemetery and the Essene community that lived there in ancient times. The paper also describes the approach that the author of the article took to shed new light on the findings at the cave and the implications these findings had for the long-held assumption that the inhabitants of the cave were members of an all-male, celibate society.
From the Paper
"Therefore, the author?s approach was to try to resolve some of the outstanding issues and concerns about the actual cemetery as opposed to the related discoveries of the scrolls. The intention was to present insights into the celibacy of the Essene settlement based on assertions made from the archaeological discoveries of the Qumran Cemetery. The reason there was renewed interest in the Qumran Cemetery project which was discovered in the 1950?s was that some new controversy was raised based on women and children being found buried in the cemetery that was thought to be an all male celibate society. Scholars had theorized that Qumran cemetery was a part of the Essene settlement near by and they have been credited by other historians as the keepers of the Dead Sea Scrolls which not by coincidence were found near the Essene community cemetery."
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A Study of Crusades, 2005.
An historical look at the series of wars waged by Western European Christians to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims from the end of the 11th century to the late 13th century.
3,141 words (approx. 12.6 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 143.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the background, causes, and consequences of the crusades. In particular, the paper examines the First Crusade in detail and then takes a brief look at the other crusades.
Outline
Background
The Immediate Cause
Pope Urban?s Clermont Address of 1095
The First Crusade
The Second Wave
The Aftermath and Other Crusades
Consequences
From the Paper
"Following the death of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, in 814 A.D., the Empire fell into a steady decline. Christian Europe came under repeated attacks, from the Magyars in the east and center and from the marauding Vikings in the north. Islam, which was a growing power since the 7th century, posed an even bigger threat to Europe. Its forces had had conquered North Africa, the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and Spain by the 8th century. The Byzantine Empire, which had survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, to carry the torch of the ancient Greco-Roman civilization and Christianity in the east, was also threatened by the forces of Islam. In the 11th century A.D., however, Europe began to experience a revival in its strength. A growing population matched a robust economy. The power and influence of the Church was consolidated following a reform movement which reversed the previous practice of kings? appointment of important clergy members."
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The Struggle Between Greece and Turkey, 2005.
A history of the conflict between Greece and Turkey, starting with the 11th century and continuing up until present times.
1,393 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, AU$ 73.95
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Abstract
This paper provides a brief overview of the ongoing struggle between Greece and Turkey. The paper describes the history of their relations, the wars fought between the two countries, massacres of populations and occupations of land, British involvement in the struggle, present day relations, as well as the current political situation in Cyprus.
From the Paper
"Despite many commonalitities, Greece and Turkey have been at odds for hundreds of years (Turkey pp). Although many subscribe to the myth of ancient hatred, there is however, a history of conflict that dates back to the entry of Turkish nomads into the Byzantine Empire in the 11th century, the eventual collapse of the Byzantine, the fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the long dominance of the Ottoman Dynasty over Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean islands (Turkey pp). Throughout history, the strategic location of the small Mediterranean island of Cyprus has been of interest of several states that sought to gain a foothold for Middle East invasions (Meier Pp). Greece gained control of the island in the 13th century B.C. and dominated the island until the Ottoman takeover of 1571, after which Turkish immigrants began to inhabit the island (Meier Pp). During the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of its war with Russia, the United Kingdom negotiated to become the protecting power over Cyprus and officially gained sovereignty over the island in 1923 under the Treaty of Lausanne, making the island a British Crown Colony until its independence in 1960 (Meier Pp). Since Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1832, relations between Greece and Turkey have been marked by mutual hostility resulting in four wars, The Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, the First World War 1914-1918, and the Greco-Turkish War 1919-1922 (Ottoman pp)."
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Herodotus in Egypt, 2005.
A look at this ancient account of Egyptian life by the Greek traveler, Herodotus.
1,116 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 3 sources, MLA, AU$ 60.95
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Abstract
This paper considers the problematic nature of a traveler's view of a foreign culture and society and, in particular, the ancient Greek traveler, Herodotus's, view of ancient Egypt. The paper looks at the reliability of Herodotus's sources, how his recordings of Egyptian history and culture differ from what has been written in other texts, and what cultural biases Herodotus might hold as an observer.
From the Paper
"Travelogues as sources of accurate history are problematic. By definition, they are written by outsiders rather than insiders to a particular land, culture and time. Travel writing even in our historical present, has a notorious unreliability as sources of data. They are filtered through the point of view of someone who, even if he or she is conversant in the language of the region, is not always equally fluent in the culture, and must rely upon the point of view of those selected by the ruling regime. For instance, the voices of the ?Work Songs from Ancient Egypt: Voices of Ordinary Men and Women,? as chronicled in Chapter 12 of Bailkey are entirely absent, as these voices of the hands, backs, and sweat that the great pyramids were constructed by were not part of the exposure of the historian. Perhaps they might not have been as interesting, to Herodotus, as the great visions of the pyramids themselves, given that the Greek Herodotus himself was part of a culture that accepted slavery as a necessity."
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The Mystery of the Nok Culture, 2005.
A look at what archaeologists are able to learn about ancient African culture through Nok art.
2,541 words (approx. 10.2 pages), 8 sources, MLA, AU$ 121.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the relationship between Nok art and the long lost culture. It explains that the tragedy of looting and the loss of cultural/archaeological context for surviving artifacts has made a true exploration of the Nok history extremely difficult and speculative. It concludes that what can be known for certain is that, prior to 500 B.C.E, at a time when Africa was once thought to be completely plagued by intellectual darkness, there existed a civilization with the ability to create advanced and symbolic relics of a civilization where hierarchy, art, and science prevailed.
From the Paper
"The second vein of interpretation is based on surrounding tribes. For example, Gillan takes this tactic when he writes: ?A number of heads and bodies, depicting deformities or ailments (similar to diseases portrayed in Ibibio masks), may well have been used for magico-medical purposes? (66) Taking this approach, there seem to be indications that the statues were used for a variety of religious purposes. Surrounding tribes in Benin have frequently used lifelike statues, not unlike the terra cottas found in Nok, as part of ancestral altars through which they either invoked the spirits of their ancestors or prayed for them. Statues may also have been used as representations of the divine. There are other options as well. They could have been used ?with funeral ceremonies, ancestor cults or other religious rituals. They might have been conceived as representations of chiefs--though not as their portraits--or as mythical beings and spirits... Others may have served as grave figures ...charms and fertility amulets, possibly worn as pendents. (Gillan, 66) Most surrounding cultures have been polytheistic/animistic and either worship or placate a wide range of deities. ?Janus figures? found in Nok may have been used like those in surrounding cultures, to ?express the male/female duality of human nature.? (Gillan, 66) Additionally, even today ceramic figures are used as finials on many roofs and shrines, and Gillan speculates that terra cotta figures might have taken this place centuries before."
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Irish Cultures, 2005.
A look at early Irish art and literature and how it helps define early Irish culture.
2,566 words (approx. 10.3 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 121.95
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Abstract
This paper examines early Irish art and literature in an effort to gain insight into early Irish heritage and culture. The paper discusses Le Tene art, Celtic art, the emergence of craft centers or workshops, influences on Le Tene art and Le Tene art's influence on other cultures as well as early Christian artifacts, the importance and significance of the Ulster cycle in Irish literature, and how the story "The Tain Bo Cuailgne" represents the rough, common life of the early Irish.
From the Paper
"When attempting to explore early Irish cultures, we can discover much when we observe art and literature in conjunction with historical information. Historical facts only present a portion of the picture, while artifacts and literature fill in the gaps. Art from the Le Tene culture offers incredible insight into early Irish heritage because literacy was not widespread. Symbols and images depicted on pieces discovered at this time represent rituals and beliefs. While most of the population could not write, the literature from the Ulster era helps support what we can learn from artifacts. In addition, when we combine what we see and read from the arts of early Irish cultures, we discover a remarkable connection to historical accounts of these people."
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Lifestyle of the Ichthyosaur, 2004.
An examination of the lifestyle of the ichthyosaur.
3,789 words (approx. 15.2 pages), 9 sources, MLA, AU$ 164.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the habits and characteristics of the ichthyosaur, which is a family of marine reptiles that existed during the same era as the dinosaurs. The paper looks at the lifestyle of the species and focuses on various extinction theories.
Introduction
Well-Adapted to Ocean Life
Diet
Reproduction
Locomotion
Deep Divers
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Ichthyosaur fossils were discovered in the late nineteenth century, before the first dinosaur fossils were discovered, and received little acclaim. It wasn?t until the recent discovery a few years ago of a small amount of new specimens in Japan and China that a wider interest in ichthyosaurs? was revived. The ichthyosaur is a fish-shaped tetrapod of the diapsid family. Tetrapod means four-limbed vertebrate. Diapsids are classified as having two openings in the skull and is a classification that encompasses reptiles and birds. There is much fossil evidence to support the conclusion that ichthyosaurs were descended from terrestrial, or land-dwelling, reptiles. One such example is that Ichthyosaurs were air-breathers like cetaceans."
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Ancient Near East and Mediterranean History, 2005.
A look at the similarities and differences of the development of civilization in the Ancient Near East and the Mediterranean.
851 words (approx. 3.4 pages), 3 sources, MLA, AU$ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper compares the history and development of the Mediterranean civilization to that of the history and development of the civilization of the Near East. The paper compares the political, economic, and social realms, cultural and intellectual ideas, and values and institutions of both civilizations and looks at how each differed in its impact on the creation of Western civilization, as well as the degree of that impact.
From the Paper
"Civilization in the ancient Mediterranean (1000 B.C.E. - 500 C.E.) arose out of a number of important causes. First, the location of the Mediterranean area between three continents, and the influence of civilizations like Mesopotamia, India and China nearby. Further, the excellent communication by sea, the mild climate, and the invention of writing were important factors in encouraging the development of civilization in the area (Poiycratis)."
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The Mohave and the Chemehuevi, 2005.
Examines the past and the present of two American Indian tribes of California.
1,476 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 7 sources, APA, AU$ 76.95
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Abstract
This paper explores the history, social organization, and customs of two California tribes: The Mohave and the Chemehuevi. The scope of the paper includes a review of the current status of the two tribes.
From the Paper
"The American Indian tribes are the original immigrants of the continent of America. In fact, the people of these tribes are of old Eastern origin, believed to be descendants of the Mongloid race in Asia. Over a period of thousands of years, these tribes gradually populated the unoccupied Western Hemisphere, from the Bering Strait to the southern most tip of South America, and from coast to coast. These first settlers were not savages and, in fact, possessed ancient knowledge about the laws of the universe and nature. They developed varying types of social organization and mechanisms, which satisfied their choice of environment and preferred manner of living, in harmony with nature (Dutton 1983: xix-xx). It is the objective of this paper to discuss the history, customs, and social organization, both past and present, of two of the American Indian tribes that settled in the West, namely, the Mohave and the Chemehuevi."
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Civilizations near Chaco Canyon, 2004.
An examination of the Anasazi civilization, which developed and prospered in the Four Corners region between 1 AD and 1300 AD.
2,205 words (approx. 8.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 107.95
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Abstract
A thriving and well-developed civilization appeared around the Chaco Canyon some time after 1 AD and went on to become one of the most representative in the area until its decline in the 14th century. This paper looks at how a well-planned network of roads encouraged trade with other local communities and those as far south as Mexico and the Toltec civilization, while the Anasazi locally manufactured pottery, jewelry, and magnificent buildings, which can still be admired today.
From the Paper
"The archeological evidence discovered in the area proves that the Anasazi first moved into the area and into the southern Colorado Plateau some time at the beginning of the 1st millennium, that is, around 1 AD. The local population of the time became a ?settled, agricultural people who have valued land and water above all else? . This gives us some clues about the later disappearance of the population.
The earliest Anasazi population occupied an area that had been previously abandoned by Archaic Indian populations. Settled in the area, the Anasazi civilization entered in the so-called Basketmaker phase, a simple, self-sufficient society. Later on, around the year 500 AD, the Anasazi began to introduce and develop their famous pottery, began using the bow and arrow, build pit dwellings and began to cultivate a larger variety of crops, more nutritious, including beans among others."
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