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The Written Word, 2005.
Traces the history of the use of vernacular language in literature.
1,424 words (approx. 5.7 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 77.95
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Abstract
The breakthrough that opened literature to the masses occurred in 1456 when Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. This invention allowed publishers to produce literary manuscripts and documents at a much more massive scale and at cheaper prices. The paper shows that authors began to make their works more widely readable, utilizing a more common language. And so, the use of vernacular language in literature was born. The paper examines the history of vernacular use in written works, examining in particular the history of American literature.
From the Paper
"Vernacular tradition as employed in literature serves to give voice to a subset that may not have one. As discussed in Liberating Voices, Jones is quoted to say that the, "foundation of every literature tradition is oral, whether it is visible or invisible in the text". Jones goes on to explain that vernacular tradition is commonly utilized when an author of a misunderstood and often oppressed population is writing about his or her culture through the use of fictionalized examples. Of particular note is the African-American population."
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"Church", 2005.
Explores the etymology of the word "church".
1,927 words (approx. 7.7 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 99.95
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Abstract
Examines the source of the word "church" and how it evolved from Greek to modern English. It explores the usage of the word in modern day congregations. The paper also looks at present day arguments about the true meaning of the word "church".
From the Paper
"The Church is not a human organization, but a Divine-Human Organism. It is not a human corporation, but the Divine-human Body of Christ. The source of the Church is this God Himself. It is not men's invention, it is not a fruit, and result of men's social need, but it is the sole place of man's salvation. That is to say, the impression is created that men made the Church in order to be able to survive in such hard and tragic social conditions of life. Nevertheless, as we clarify before, the source of the Church is God Himself, and man's salvation takes place within it."
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Bilingual Education, 2005.
Reviews the article "Opposition to Bilingual Education: Prejudice or the Defense of Realistic Interests?" by L. Huddy and D.O. Sears.
755 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 1 source, APA, AU$ 43.95
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Abstract
The paper argues that predicting the effect of bilingual education on student outcomes, using the work by Huddy and Sears ("Opposition to Bilingual Education: Prejudice or the Defense of Realistic Interests?") is problematical. The authors investigated the bases for parental prejudice against bilingual education but they did not investigate in any detail what the educational outcomes might be for the children involved. The paper shows that the authors made only incidental reference to the possibility that Latino, African-American or other minority students-or even Anglos-might experience diminished educational outcomes in the presence, or for that matter absence, of bilingual education. In fact, they were not investigating outcomes per se; they were investigating the source of prejudice.
From the Paper
"Huddy and Sears concluded that the deepest opposition to bilingual education resulted from perceived realistic interest. They found that both parents and non-parents who perceived that programs were in competition for limited resources for education were most likely to oppose bilingual education. In addition, they noted that those parents who believed bilingual education was not of benefit to their children also opposed it."
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Second Language Acquisition, 2006.
An overview of three methods that are utilized in second language research.
4,572 words (approx. 18.3 pages), 22 sources, MLA, AU$ 191.95
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Abstract
As the world has become increasingly more global, interests in second language acquisition has also increased. More specifically second language acquisition as it pertains to the second language classroom has become a focal point. This paper examines conversation analysis, stimulated recall and the "Think Aloud Method". It compares the different approaches to theory and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each system.
Outline
Introduction
Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Classrooms
Conversation Analysis
Analysis Utilizing Conversational Analysis
Advantages and Disadvantages of Conversation Analysis
Stimulated Recall Methodology
Utilizing the Stimulated Recall Method
Case Study Using Stimulated Recall
Advantages and Disadvantages
Think Aloud Method
Advantages and Disadvantages
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Although the stimulated recall method has been utilized quite often in second language research Gass and Mackey (2000) report that the method has been severely criticized throughout its history. According the authors the most problematic aspect of stimulated recall is whether or not the findings actually reflect the though processes of the participants. For instance the authors explain that the retrospective report compiled by the researcher "is directly accessible and available for verbal reporting. This assumption is better justified with only a small amount of intervening time between the event and the recall. "
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Immersion in Bilingual Education, 2005.
Examines the theory that immersion into a second language is a good method to acquire that language.
2,950 words (approx. 11.8 pages), 9 sources, APA, AU$ 141.95
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Abstract
The pros and cons of bilingual education continue as an argued debate across the United States. Unfortunately, much of the information on which people base their opinion is not correct. Numerous studies conducted over the past three decades show that bilingual education has been an effective educational tool. This paper shows that educators and other bilingual specialists are now also looking into other methodology, such as two-way or dual immersion, that can enhance the basic bilingual curriculum.
From the Paper
"Schools are finding that language development works both ways. Many Native American children, for example, have forgotten or have never known their original languages. So that the languages are not forgotten, kindergarten students learn everything from colors to numbers to animal names in Cherokee. Students are called by their native Indian names and speak in Cherokee for most of the day. These kindergartners are in the first Cherokee-immersion class in a U.S. public school. By teaching kids Cherokee and not just English, Lost City School in Oklahoma is working to help save a dying language."
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Motivation in SL Learning, 2005.
A literature review of the importance that motivation plays in second language learning.
1,545 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 18 sources, MLA, AU$ 81.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a review of literature on the role of motivation in second or foreign language learning. It explains that motivation is divided into two basic types to integrate into the target language community. It shows how motivation is comprised of three primary elements: Efforts: Time invested in study of the language and learner drive; Desire: How much proficiency in the language is wanted by the learner; and Effect: Emotional response of the learner in relation to language study. It defines motivation as the learner's orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language.
Abstract
Purpose
Literature Review
ESL Model
Linguistic and Non-Linguistic Outcomes
Summary & Conclusion
From the Paper
"Integrative motivation has been found in studies (Taylor, Meyunard and Theault, 1977; Ellis, 1997; Crookes et al 1991) to sustain long-terms success when learning a second language. Stated is that because motivation is a critical factors in L2achievement and for this very reasons identification of the type and combination of motivation that is key in the successful acquisition of a second language while simultaneously viewing motivation "as one of a number of variables in an intricate model of interrelated individual and situational factors which are unique to each language learner." (Norris-Holt, 2003)"
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Seizures, 2004.
An analysis of various seizure disorders and the relation to communication problems.
1,322 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 12 sources, MLA, AU$ 72.95
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Abstract
This paper claims that in discussing various seizure disorders, a common thread in much current research concerns communications issues. The paper contends that as a measure of impairment following head injury, concomitant with head injury or any other focal neural deficits, it is apparent that language is a key element. The paper examines the effects of various brain injuries and attendant physical factors such as aphasia and focal neurological deficit for all age groups, from early childhood to old age. The paper explores the reason behind the use of language, its acquisition, delay or impairment as the tool most often used to make assessments.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
General Studies
Neurological Factors in Language Acquisition
Head Injury Studies
From the Paper
"Maratsos and Matheny conducted studies to develop information abut language specificity and elasticity related to various neurological conditions. They devoted an enormous amount of time and effort to an exhaustive investigation, based on their hypothesis that "Language is currently the highest human mental function for which faculty-specific biological programming seems plausible (Fodor 1983, quoted by Maratsos and Matheny 1994). They drew into their investigation commentary from other disciplines, notably concepts developed by Noam Chomsky, who stressed "the putative independence of language as a functioning mental faculty" and Fowler who proposed that "one cannot conduct language development research without at least acknowledging the hypothesis that language is acquired, processed, and represented independently of other cognitive domains" (Maratsos and Matheny 1994). "
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Learning Arabic in English, 2005.
An in-depth study at the method of using English as a first language to teach Arabic as a second language.
18,352 words (approx. 73.4 pages), 85 sources, MLA, AU$ 403.95
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Abstract
This study explores elementary Arabic heritage students' use of English as a first language (L1) to learn Arabic as a second language (L2). Far from being restricted to "good language learners" or certain corners of academia, L2 acquisition and learning occurs in a wide variety of settings. The literature review is divided into three major parts. The first part is a concise history of Arab immigration to the United States. The second part is a short description of the Arabic language, its origins and characteristics. The third section of the literature review explores previous studies and research of the manner in which L1 supports the learning and acquisition of L2.
The basic hypothesis that is tested is as follows: If the students retrogress as they use their first language to learn the second one, it is clear that there is interference in the long run. However, if the students show overall progress in the long run as they use the first language to learn the second one, there is no significant interference. The results of the study predict that students will show overall progress as they use the first language to learn the second one. Finally, the study results have significant implications for future research in languages and teaching methods.
Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Part I. Historical Background Surrounding the Arab Immigration
Part II. The Arabic Language
Arabic Language and Identity
Part III. Use of a First Language (L1) to Support the Learning and Acquisition of a Second Language (L2)
Brief Historical Background
Second Language Learners
Mismatch Hypothesis
The Natural Order Hypothesis
The Input Hypothesis
Environmentalist Theory
The Threshold Theory
Underlying Proficiency Hypothesis
Analysis of Literature Review
Arguments against L1 & L2 Learning
Significance of the Study
Data Collection
Study Participants
Methodologies
Procedure
Scheduling
Presentation of Analysis of Results and General Summary of Findings
Interview Analysis
Importance of the Study Results
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Finally, there remain as many questions as answers, such as whether English will ultimately take over advanced education, as well as serving for international communication. Additionally, will the status of Arabic change, will its official role be implemented, and will the Arabic minority maintain their language? It remains to be seen whether language policy and planning are able to effect such a complex situation, whether language decisions can have effects on the social and political context, or whether they are in fact driven completely by external political and economic forces (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1997). We know that the linguistic repertoire of a country is a reflection of a myriad of political, demographic, cultural, religious and economic factors (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1997).
A review of the related research and proposed study reveals that unraveling the sociocultural and political influences on the second language learner is no small task. In addition, there is tremendous variation in the contexts within which both individuals and groups acquire a second language ("The Diversity Kit," 2002). Educators face the challenge of understanding those contexts, what motivates individuals, the relationship between first and second languages, and the academic environment, as well as the different demands placed on the second language learner in a classroom setting ("The Diversity Kit," 2002). Some researchers have posited that teachers understanding of the second language acquisition process will guide their instructional strategies toward ways to accommodate second language learners in their various developmental sequences. "
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Language and Sexism, 2004.
An analysis of language's role in sustaining inequality between the sexes.
2,975 words (approx. 11.9 pages), 7 sources, MLA, AU$ 141.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the role played by language in sexism. The paper examines whether language is the cause of sexism or whether sexism causes certain language. The paper contends that this might be impossible to distinguish, but assesses that language clearly plays a key role in perpetuating sexism and inequality between men and women. The paper claims that sexist language reveals the gender-bias that is pervasive in society. Sexist language takes many forms. From gender-related words used as insults or compliments to the sexualizing of previously gender-neutral words, the paper presents a myriad of examples of how the English language helps foster a chauvinistic society. The paper explores how the normalization of the male and reliance on masculine pronouns and nouns marginalizes the existence of women in society.
From the Paper
"Gender-based words also play a role in maintaining sexual inequality when used in an insulting manner. For example, some of the most pejorative insults in the English language consist of calling a person a derogatory term for a vagina. Not only is the "p" word one of the ultimate insults that a person can levy towards a man, it has also become synonymous with an absolute lack of courage. Given that women use their vaginas to bring forth life, in what is almost universally recognized as an extremely painful process, the fact that a euphemism for the word "vagina" has become synonymous with the word "coward" indicates how language helps perpetuate sexual inequality."
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English Structure vs. Russian Translation, 2005.
A report on the structure of the English and Russian languages as they pertain to the unique skill of translation.
3,107 words (approx. 12.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 146.95
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Abstract
This report focuses on differences between the Russian and English languages in terms of word and object meanings, direct translations, sayings, rules in grammar and other critical lexical rules such slang and idiom use.
Introduction
History of Russian in America
Lexicography
Semasiology
Russian Structure
Translation by Dictionary
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The actions of Post World War II Soviet Union and World War II itself were major reasons for Russian becoming a common course in American colleges. Prior to 1940, there were less than twenty universities in America offering Russian language programs and less than fifty percent of those had a true Russian/Slavic department. Other tell-tale signs of the popularity of Russian in American schools can be demonstrated by the fact that there were only three Russian doctoral programs at the time of post World War II Europe. However, relations with the Soviet Union grew as a result of the war which also had the dramatic affect of increasing an interest in the Russian language. The war therefore increased the number of universities in the United States offering Russian to over one hundred ninety in the 1950's."
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African-American Vernacular English, 2005.
A discussion of the roots and future of African-American Vernacular English (AAVE).
1,458 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 78.95
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Abstract
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is the dialect of English used by most African-Americans in familiar and informal settings . Although the language spoken by African-Americans in different parts of the United States exhibits some regional variation, the dialect has fairly uniform characteristics. It has a well-formed grammar and an interesting, though controversial, history. Dismissed as 'bad English' by some, it has evoked considerable debate interest among academics and linguists many of whom recognize its importance, especially as a medium of instruction for the African-Americans. This paper explores the origins of AAVE, discusses whether the dialect is a creole, investigates its similarity with other creoles and examines its grammar.
From the Paper
"There is some controversy about the origin of AAVE. Some people believe that the Black people, who were brought to America as slaves, picked up English from the 'English-speaking' Southerners they came in contact with. The proponents of this theory, also known as the dialect hypothesis, note that the AAVE and the English spoken by the American Southerners have many features in common, such as the Southern Vowel Shift, vowel lowering, and double modals. (Sidnell, background) The theory contends that the white Southerners in the 17th century spoke a distinct "Virginian" dialect that had its origins in a family of regional dialects spoken in the south and west of England in counties such as Sussex, Surrey, Hampshire, Dorset, Devon, Wiltshire, Oxford and Gloucester during the 17th century. (Williams, 24) Although the use of such a dialect in polite conversation quickly disappeared in England by the end of the 18th century, most of its characteristics persisted in the American South. According to this theory, the 'incorrect' English picked up by the Blacks from the Southern whites was passed down through subsequent generations. In other words, this theory (also known as the 'dialect hypothesis') about the origins of AAVE contends that the present form of the dialect is simply "bad English" and has nothing to do with the native, Western African languages of the slaves. In answer to the question as to why this type of English does not currently exist among its originators, the proponents of this theory argue that most people avoid using "bad" English when they get educated. They contend that the Englishmen from the south and west counties of Britain and the white Southerners discontinued the use of such an 'incorrect' form of English after being educated; the African Americans continued to persist with such 'bad' as they did not benefit from similar education. (Ibid.)"
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The Bilingual Education Act, 2005.
A discussion of the act and its problems.
2,415 words (approx. 9.7 pages), 6 sources, MLA, AU$ 119.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the social problems that surround the the Bilingual Education Act. It examines whether it was an anti-poverty measure to overcome the educational disadvantage of minority students, or, in other words, to cure the academic problems caused by limited proficiency in English. It also questions whether it was an anti-discrimination tactic to make the curriculum more accessible to limited-English-proficient (LEP) students. Looks at a few cases in the educational systems history, which challenged this act also.
Outline
Introduction
Content of Title VII
Lau v. Nichols
Immediate Implications of the Lau Decision
Post-Decision Discussion of Lau v. Nichols
Effects of Lau v. Nichols on School Districts
Effects of Lau v. Nichols in the Classroom
From the Paper
"Viewing the current state of partisan politics and partisan factions concerning everything from the arts to education to security of the state, it is difficult to believe that when Lyndon B. Johnson was president of the United States, a law with vast power to alter American society was made law without a single dissenting voice (Crawford, 1998, p. 50+). That law was The Bilingual Education Act, also known as Title VII, Equal Education Opportunities Act, and Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. However, since that time, there has been dissent in abundance, with some states attempting to virtually neutralized the law's effects."
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English as a Second Language, 2004.
An analysis of learning English as a second language in the California elementary school system.
1,777 words (approx. 7.1 pages), 5 sources, MLA, AU$ 93.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the significant issue of learning English as a second language in the California elementary school system. The paper contends that ensuring that all California students learn both English and academic content has proved to be a challenging task, and there are many opinions regarding the most appropriate means of achieving this goal. The paper examines some of these opinions.
From the Paper
"Research indicates that almost a quarter of the kindergarten through twelfth grade students in California cannot function academically in English, and thus have been termed "English Language Learners (ELL) (E-Source Online, 2005)." The number of students who still need to learn English has more than doubled in the past ten years (E-Source Online, 2005). Not all of them are immigrants, as some were born as American citizens to parents who are not fluent in English. Although nearly 40 percent are in Los Angeles County, the impact of the increase in non-English speaking pupils affects schools just about everywhere in the state (E-Source Online, 2005). Two-thirds of the current English language learners are in grades K-6, and the other third are in grades seven through twelve. The educational needs of the younger children who must learn to read as well as learn a new language must be addressed in the most effective way possible."
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"Racism in the English Language", 2004.
A review of the essay, "Racism in the English Language," written by Robert B. Moore.
1,213 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 1 source, MLA, AU$ 67.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses and analyzes the essay, "Racism in the English Language," by Robert B. Moore. The paper focuses on the statement that language influences Western thought from the first moment we learn it. The paper illustrates, through this enlightening essay, that the English language is peppered with racial stereotypes and slurs, even in words and phrases that seem quite harmless. The paper questions whether it is intentional that many English words and phrases were created with subtle references to black as "bad" and white as "good" or whether they are simply a result of long repressed and unconscious thoughts and feelings about the races.
From the Paper
"In the "Wrap-Up," the author states, "Negative language infects the subconscious of most Western people from the time they first learn to speak. Prejudice is not merely imparted or superimposed. It is metabolized into the bloodstream of society" (Moore 474). This statement is thought provoking because it makes the reader stand back and look at the subconscious ways language has affected our beliefs and ideas from the first time we could listen and speak. This is interesting and yet frightening at the same time. If it is true, that language "colors" our vision subconsciously from the beginning of life, then it also seems to imply that we really have no chance of every overcoming prejudice and racial bias in Western society, for the thoughts are too ingrained and run too deep. No matter how much we try, there will still be inherent prejudices that are too big to overcome."
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James Baldwin on Black Language, 2005.
An analysis of James Baldwin's essay, "If Black English Isn't a Language, Then Tell Me, What Is?"
933 words (approx. 3.7 pages), 1 source, MLA, AU$ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the argument presented by James Baldwin in his essay, "If Black English Isn't a Language, Then Tell Me, What Is?". The paper discusses the logical soundness of the author's case by examining his line of reasoning and his use of evidence. Paying attention to writing style, structure of the argument, evidence provided, and what is inferred by his use of tone, this paper examines Baldwin's message.
From the Paper
"The argument comes down to the issue of experience. Without experience language cannot be powerful. Where does this leave Black Language? He appeals to the reader by providing an example. He worries that English will remain white even after the education of black children. Does this halt the emergence of Black English? "A child cannot be taught by anyone whose demand, essentially, is that the child repudiate his experience, and all that gives him sustenance, and enter a limbo in which he will no longer be black" (Baldwin, par. 10). Baldwin argues it does but that Black Language continues to evolve anyway."
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Sex Differences in Language, 2005.
Examines the difference between the linguistic capabilities of men and women.
1,303 words (approx. 5.2 pages), 3 sources, APA, AU$ 70.95
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Abstract
Numerous studies conducted over the years have suggested that females are more adept than males with regard to their vocal ability. This paper proposes that females have better linguistic abilities because they are both biologically more suited to language capability and because society has influenced women in a manner that dictates that they should have more linguistic ability.
From the Paper
"For years researchers have sought to explain the sex differences that occur in language and human behavior (Joseph, 2000). Human females time and time again have proven to excel over their male counterparts with regard to language tasks and verbal abilities (Joseph, 2000). Females are generally credited with having more ability to express themselves from a social-emotional perspective and tend to vocalize more often among one another than males in groups or pairs (Joseph, 2000)."
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