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The Bonobo Ape, 2002.
Examines language, memory and planning in the bonobo ape.
13,987 words (approx. 55.9 pages), 32 sources, MLA, AU$ 311.95
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Abstract
This paper is in two parts. The first part reviews and summarizes past work in ape language research, including the Gardners' work with the chimp Washoe, Francine Patterson's work with Koko the gorilla, Lyn Miles's work with Chantek the orangutan and Sue Savage-Rumbaugh's work with bonobos and chimps. The second part is a proposal for an experiment to teach American Sign Language to a group of bonobos and then use these communicative abilities to test their memory and planning abilities. It includes descriptions of bonobo behavior in the wild and captivity, an argument for gestural language as the first human language and a description of the means of teaching and testing the bonobos in the proposed experiment. The paper includes a table and illustrations.
From the Paper
"During the Oligocene epoch of the Tertiary period, a small monkey-like creature lived in the rainforest trees in central Africa. About thirty million years ago, this primate ancestor diverged into two distinct species; one would father the line of Old World monkeys, including baboons and macaques. The other would become the predecessor of modern apes and humans. Around twenty-two million years ago gibbons split away from that line and formed a branch known as the lesser apes. Six or seven million years later, orangutans too diverged from the ape lineage and migrated to the Asian islands of Sumatra and Borneo, where they remained highly arboreal. Another eight or nine million years passed, during which this ape line began to spend more time on the ground, and gorillas split off to become their own species. Two million years more went by, bringing us to the Pliocene epoch, which began about five million years ago. It was at this crucial point in evolutionary history that our ancestors and the ancestors of modern chimpanzees and bonobos took different paths, the former leading to bipedality, ground-based life, and hominization, the latter eventually splitting into two more distinct species about three million years ago, both of whom would remain remarkably similar to us physically, behaviorally, emotionally, and intellectually (Goodall, Hook, Leakey, Linden 1992)."
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Independent Subsystems in Human Memory, 2002.
An examination of how English and Urdu letters of the alphabet are served by independent systems in human memory.
2,838 words (approx. 11.4 pages), 14 sources, MLA, AU$ 105.95
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Abstract
This paper describes an experiment to examine the systems of the human memory responsible for language processing. It is designed to show how visual information is stored in a visual spatial sketchpad that is involved in manipulating visuo-spatial images. The experiment explores the average storage capacity of this spatial pad and the number of subsystems that might be involved in the processing of various languages. Once verified it establishes a firm ground for comprehension of how languages are processed.
From the Paper
"Long term memory is the capacity store that can store large amounts of information up to long periods of time. Long term memory is used in this experiment for the storage of letters because it has a larger capacity and items entered in the LTM have a bigger retention interval. Short term memory can store up to 5 to 7 letters and hence for the encoding and retrieval of 12 to 13 letters, LTM has to be employed."
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Archaeology of Language Origins, 2000.
This paper gives an archaeological perspective on the origins of language. The writer employs graphs and photographs to trace the source of language in the human brain.
2,922 words (approx. 11.7 pages), 48 sources, MLA, AU$ 108.95
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Abstract
The paper looks to answer the following questions: Can apes or any other non-humans use symbols or language? How does our understanding of the relationship between mind and brain help us to investigate which fossil hominins first used language? What do we know of the brains of fossil hominins and the constraints on brain size increase? What is language ?as we know it??
From the Paper
"A symbol is considered to be something that ?stands for something else? (Davidson & Noble 1993). Davidson and Noble also suggest a second criterion, that is, symbols as accepted by social custom or convention. A ring worn on a finger can symbolize marriage, (although the social convention varies within groups of people) and is an example containing both criteria. The second criterion cited above stems from Wittgenstien?s ?private language argument?."
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Language Games, 2002.
Discusses Ludwig Wittgenstein's idea of sensation.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 6 sources, AU$ 69.95
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Abstract
Discusses Ludwig Wittgenstein's idea of sensation. Linkage of the sensations (art, aesthetics, religion) as individual sensations linked by language. Idea that language is unexact means of describing the senses. Language games as semantics. The language of aesthetics. Wittgenstein's exercises. Wittgenstein's theories and changing concept of language games. Notion of human culture.
From the Paper
"LANGUAGE GAMES
INTRODUCTION AND THESIS:
Wittgenstein separates the idea of a sensation with that of a word to describe it. How often, for example, have we heard someone say "I feel; your pain!" which, as Wittgenstein would be prompt to point out, is impossible. The sensations, art, aesthetics, and religion are individual sensations, with a communal linkage called "language". But, compared to one's sensations, language is the most inexact means of describing what one feels or senses.
People, as Wittgenstein theorizes, "cannot be said to learn of my sensations only from my behaviour, for I cannot be said to learn of them-I have them" (Wittgenstein, 1953, p. 89). On the other hand, this sort of "investigation" of sensations makes Wittgenstein ask whether "..."
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Semiology Of Language, 2002.
Discusses signs and meaning.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 2 sources, AU$ 59.95
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Abstract
Discusses signs and meaning. Spoken and written speech, images, symbols, gestures. Communal nature of language; shared meaning. Connection between a work of art and the artist. Example from documentary film of architect/sculptor Maya Lin and her design for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Social and political contexts of meaning.
From the Paper
"Semiology is the study of signs and meaning, from the signs we know as language to other forms of communication by means of images, symbols, gestures, and so on. All messages have a relational component. Language is communal in that it has meaning only within a community of people who accept that meaning, and meaning exists only as shared meaning. Semiotics has been applied to language in various ways, including an analysis of how we read and write and understand the written word, with written language seen as a form of symbolic interaction between writer and reader. The semiology of language analyzes the morphemes of language and how they acquire meaning in both spoken and written speech. Signs also come in the form of images, pictures, symbols, and so on, and these have meaning also within a community context."
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Language Acquisition, 2002.
Examines differing concepts of the rationalist and the empiricist theorists on how language is acquired.
2,700 words (approx. 10.8 pages), 11 sources, AU$ 119.95
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Abstract
Examines differing concepts of the rationalist and the empiricist theorists on how language is acquired. Compares the two approaches as applied to children's first language acquisition. The minds of young children. Structure-oriented & process-oriented groups. Environmental factors. Social interaction vs. cognitive theories. Semantic learning characteristics. Current research.
From the Paper
"The fierce debate between the rationalist and the empiricist theorists on the issue of language acquisition has captured the imagination of the linguistic world for decades. Even though each group has produced results that contribute to the research on language acquisition, the complete process of language acquisition still remains a mystery. While the rationalists? concept of specific language mechanisms in the brain has prevailed for many years, new research by connectionist theorists has tilted the balance towards the empiricists? approach.
In this paper, the two competing approaches will be examined and compared in detail. Their application in children?s discourse will be explored to assess their validity. Finally, the work..."
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The Creoleness of Middle English, 2001.
Asking the question whether Middle English language can be defined as a creole or not.
3,297 words (approx. 13.2 pages), 9 sources, MLA, AU$ 118.95
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Abstract
This paper deals with the question whether Middle English could be considered a creole or not. In this essay it is argued that Middle English cannot be considered a creole. First the writer looks at the definition of the word creole and then looks at some creolization criteria. Finally, it looks at the "creole hypothesis" i.e. the hypothesis that Middle English would be a creole, in a sociohistorical and sociolinguistic framework.
From the Paper
"There are two terms that need to be defined before going further. The first term is pidgin. In short, a pidgin is a language which has been drastically simplified in structure and vocabulary, in order to serve communication needs. It is no-one?s native language. Pidginization may arise when two language communities come into sudden direct contact, for instance in trade contact or military invasion.
"The second term that needs to be defined is creole. A creole is usually preceded by a pidgin. This is how a pidgin may become a creole: In a few exceptional sociolinguistic circumstances, a pidgin may be adopted as the first language of a community and acquires native speakers. In this case it undergoes elaboration, i.e. creolization. Normally, there is also an expansion in function (Poussa 40)."
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United States Cultural Domination, 2002.
A study of how the United States dominates the global market in mass culture.
1,030 words (approx. 4.1 pages), 3 sources, MLA, AU$ 45.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the globalization of culture and how the American popular culture shapes it. It investigates how economic dominance, communications technologies, social and political events influence global mass media. The paper also describes the role of the English language in creating a single world culture.
From the Paper
"When we look at the dominant form of culture that characterizes our society today, it is often referred to as ?globalization?. But to many, this idea of a unified world is characterized by the concept of ?Americanization?. To a large extent, the shared culture around the world is becoming more and more influenced by American culture. There are many reasons for this, but primarily these are the result of the economic dominance of that nation, the development of global systems of communication, and the spread of English as the new international language. The following paper will address all of these issues in order to fully understand the reasons why the United States has a stranglehold on the global market in mass culture."
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Linguistic Knowledge, 1994.
The pro and con arguments and theories on whether such knowledge is innate or learned.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 10 sources, AU$ 89.95
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From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine the proposition that much of linguistic knowledge is innate. The plan of the research will be to set forth the basis for that claim, and then to discuss arguments for and against it, with a view toward reaching a determination as to the extent of its validity, based on the evidence and character of debate in the literature.
The concept that linguistic knowledge is innate is connected to theories of how language can be acquired in early childhood. The professional literature makes clear that the name linguistic theory is given to the idea that language acquisition occurs because human beings have, built in to their physical and psychological makeup from birth, the absolute possession of the..."
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Second Language Learning, 1994.
Sociocultural & linguistic influences of SLL & effects on teaching & teacher's role, emphasizing communicative over grammatical approach. Research, feedback, models and techniques.
3,600 words (approx. 14.4 pages), 21 sources, AU$ 159.95
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From the Paper
" Introduction
Snow (1993) has noted that most of the people in the world are at least somewhat bilingual; many others are multilingual. In other words, most people have learned at least one language in addition to their native language. Lambert (1990) has introduced an important distinction in bilingualism, one that has implications for the field of second language learning.
Specifically, Lambert (1990) states that there are two kinds of bilingualism. The first is additive bilingualism in which an individual acquires proficiency in a second language with no loss in his or her first language; in other words, both languages are associated with prestige and respect much as are people in Quebec, Canada who speak both English and French.
The second kind of bilingualism is subtractive bilingualism.."
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Chomsky-Halle Phonological Feature System, 1994.
Describes & analyzes method of linguistic classification (meaning, sound, phonetics, grammar) as compared to traditional approaches.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 6 sources, AU$ 69.95
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From the Paper
"NOTES ON THE CHOMSKY-HALLE PHONOLOGICAL FEATURE SYSTEM
Traditional categories and approaches
There are various ways in which languages have been transcribed. For example, one may symbolize one aspect of a contrast (e.g. length) or some other quality. One may show only underlying phonemes, or only some allophonic differences. Traditionally, a broad transcription designates one that uses a simple set of symbols, whereas a narrow transcription exhibits more phonetic detail. Diacritics increase precision, such as for indicating voicelessness, or a dental rather than alveolar sound.
Conventionally, transcription has two aspects, viz. the text itself and its interpretation. One set of conventions ascribes general phonetic values to symbols. Ladefoged (1993) thus regards symbols as approximate specifications of the.."
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Code-Switching in English across Cultures, 1993.
Looking at language integration & assimilation, diglossia, intersentential shifting, bilingualism and English as second language.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 42 sources, AU$ 59.95
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From the Paper
" CODE ALTERNATION IN ENGLISH ACROSS CULTURES
As in most new fields of research, labels can be disconcerting and confusing, because they change as new theories see the light, even when such theories are neither new nor bearers of significant modifications. So it is with code alternation, variations of which can be found in code switching, code mixing, code-shifting, code-choice, code-swaying, situational switching, and language switching--all subjects to refinements such as intersentential, intrasentential, diatopic, and diastratal code-switching. "According to estimations, about half of the earth's population speaks at least two languages... The alternating use of more than one language is one of the most striking features of many interactions in bilingual communities" (Auer, 1984:1). Most code-switching research has thus been.."
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Mandarin Chinese Language, 1993.
A look at the background, sounds, dialects, social/cultural aspects, regions of use, polite form and structure.
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 7 sources, AU$ 99.95
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From the Paper
"Mandarin Chinese Language
I. Historical background
Chinese is usually regarded as one of the oldest languages in the world. The Chinese literary idiom, which is widely used for all purposes though in modern pronunciation, is largely based on the language of the ancient classics. Another reason for Chinese language reputation for antiquity is the relative social and cultural homogeneity and stability in China during more millenniums that has been the case with most other peoples of the world. There was no large-scale borrowing of words such as followed the Norman invasion of Britain (Chao, 1967, p. 3).
The Chinese language seems old because, instead of spreading by subdivision into various national languages, which would then seem new, as do the Romance languages descended from Latin, it..."
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Second Language Acquisition: Noam Chomsky, 1993.
Discusses Chomsky's theory of language acquisition, in which there exists some sort of "language organ" that makes language possible for humans & impossible for animals.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 9 sources, AU$ 29.95
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From the Paper
"Nativist Theories of Second Language Acquisition: Noam Chomsky
Introduction
According to Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991), nativist theories posit the existence of a specific, innate biological capacity or organ that makes learning possible. Some of those nativist theories are specific to language acquisition, with Noam Chomsky perhaps the earliest and foremost exponent of the theory that language acquisition follows a universal pattern based on an innate language organ, or system of hard-wiring within the brain.
Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammar
Chomsky became most visible in his struggles with the researchers who were working with chimpanzees and gorillas to ..."
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English, 1992.
A look at the internal and external changes in the history of the language from the Indo-European period to the 20th century.
1,800 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 7 sources, AU$ 79.95
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From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine internal and external changes in the history of the English language from the Indo-European period to the modern period. The plan of the research will be to set forth the context in which language as such appeared, and then to elaborate, with reference to geographic, schematic, and vocabularic elements of discussion, the emergence of principal and subsidiary shifts in English expression that illustrate a pattern of development and maturation.
To discuss the evolution of the English language is in many ways to discuss the evolution of English-speaking civilization as expressed by and through the language. Advanced in the early years of the twentieth century, Wells's view is that language as an abstraction in semiotical form of human experience dates back..."
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American Sign Language, 1989.
Compares components & acquisition of ASL & verbal English. Discusses grammar, ideas, timetables, symbols, naming, vocabulary and holophrasic words.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 3 sources, AU$ 89.95
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From the Paper
"The acquisition of language in a child is a wondrous and complex act, not fully understood by professionals in the field of linguistics. To understand how humans acquire language would be to understand the very inner nature of man, what separates him or her from other animals, the physical and social evolutionary process among humans, and the precise structure of the thought processes that are learned and inherent, similar and unique, in every human being."
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