Abstract
The romantic relationships we engage in may well be a product of early experiences with primary caregivers according to modern attachment theorists (Hazan & Shaver, 1987 and Fraley & Shaver, 1998). Based upon an ethological viewpoint, attachment theory promotes survival and safety of the species. This biological need for safety and protection motivates the infant to attach itself to the primary caregiver through attention seeking behavior. Over time these behavior forms a true emotional bond between the caregiver and the infant which is believed to influence further relationships along the lifespan into adulthood (Berk, 2000). The laboratory based assumption that adult attachment styles evolve from childhood experiences is challenged within this paper and methodological limitations visited within contemporary studies. Difficulties within naturalistic observation is also addressed and cross-cultural validity examined.

From the Paper
"Attachment theory began in 1969 with a student of the psychoanalytic discipline, John Bowlby (Berk, 2000). He hypothesized that emotional development stemmed from early childhood bonds formed between the primary caregiver and the infant. From an evolutionary perspective attachment is a human survival mechanism; innately built into infants? genotype to provide protection and safety. Subsequent to birth infants perform behaviours that initiate the first stage of attachment (eg. crying, smiling or making eye contact), these behaviours are innate biological mechanisms that aim to keep the primary caregiver in close proximity. Reinforcement is then given by the caregiver in response to these behaviours initiating the most important reinforcement schedule of the child's life (Lyddon & Sherry, 2001)."

Tags:adulthood, lover

Abstract
This paper evaluates the McMaster model in terms of its ability to accurately describe family functioning and its ability to distinguish functional and dysfunctional families. It also presents the McMaster model as the most comprehensive model of family health.

From the Paper
"The McMaster model has so far provided us with a comprehensive way of assessing family functioning, but it does have it's own limitations. It has been argued that the McMaster model doesn't adequately reflect family developmental stages. Epstein, Bishop, Ryan, Miller, and Keitner (1993) found that families at different development stages also differ in terms of their difficulties. Families that had adolescents were found to have more problem solving difficulties, and were also found to have more areas of difficulty in the McMaster dimensions. In light of this the McMaster model may be seen as ineffective in assessing changing patterns of difficulties within families. Although, the emphasis the McMaster model puts on observable behaviour also means that family assessments are more likely to be reliable and accurate portrait of family functioning, as the clinician does not have to make inferences about family behaviour."

Tags:dysfunctional, adolescents, development

Abstract
This paper investigates the difference between competitive and recreational athletes' goal orientations. As anticipated, it shows how individuals in competitive sporting programs have a higher ego orientation than individuals in recreational programs. This result is discussed in terms of the positive health benifits for Australians.

From the Paper
"White and Duda (1994) found that athletes who competed at the highest level were higher in ego orientation than those who were involved in recreational sport. They also found that competitive levels had no significant effect on task orientation. This ego orientation link to competitive involvement is supported by a study by Gernigon and Le Bars (2000) which examined goal orientation and different levels of martial arts. Because of the unique nature of the sports studied (Judo and Aikido) in this research, unclear implications for task orientation and competitive level have been produced. These sports involve striving for mastery in getting different grades or belts, and competition with others, through bouts where beating an opponent is paramount."

Tags:athletes, health, ego

Abstract
This paper explains how cognitive ability and understanding emerges in young children and develops in adolescents, allowing them to think and explore the world around them. The author includes information from various studies that have been carried out on this subject.

Outline:
Emergence of Abstract Thought
Potential and Development of Critical Thinking
Working Memory
How Creative Thinking and Critical Thinking Work Together

From the Paper
"Cognitive ability and understanding begin in infancy and continues throughout a person's lifetime. Young children, adolescents and adults have different methods of thinking and exploring their world around them. One interesting aspect of cognition is the emergence of abstract thought during adolescence.
"According to Web Definitions, abstract thought is the ability to 'consider a concept without thinking of a specific example' or 'consider apart from a particular case or instance.' Encarta Dictionary defines abstract to be 'not relating to concrete objects but expressing something that can only be appreciated intellectually.' It is interesting to note that even the definitions are abstract!"

Tags:concept, formative, development

Abstract
This paper looks at the normal/pathological debate about criminal offenders to try to conclude whether or not criminal offenders have underlying mental issues or just commit crimes based on their environment and lifestyles.

From the Paper
"The question of whether offenders are mad or bad and the normal/pathological debate is one that runs rife throughout not only the psychological community, but also society as a whole. To understand and decide whether or not offenders are mad or just plain bad, the defining of the terms "normal" and "pathological" and the basic outline of the debate is imperative. The psychological definition of pathological is to relate to, or manifest behaviors that are habitual, maladaptive and compulsive and on the other hand normal is defined as functioning in a natural manner, with no observable abnormalities (The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary: 2002). The basics of this debate in relation to criminal offenders is that genetics influence criminal behavior and therefore cause pathological behavior (Lefton, L.A:1979), that crime is a result of a disfunctioning biological systems involving physiological, biochemical, neurological and environmental factors, (Vold, Bernard and Snipes: ) and the theory that mental illness played a huge part in why criminals offend (Lefton, L.A:1979). On the other hand, moral development theorists view crime as normal and that a person's moral development will determine what crime they will commit and what excuses they will use for the crime (Thornton, D: 1987). However with a strong debate towards the relationship between pathological behavior and crime, there is no other possibility to consider than that individuals offend due to pathological influences and are in fact mad with deeper psychological roots, rather than just bad and a normal member of society."

Tags:mental, hospitals, compulsive, damaging, behaviour, multiple, murderers, developmental, years

Abstract
This essay outlines in a factual, explanatory tone, how 'visual perception' occurs within the body and brain. It is heavily based on scientific terminology as outlined within the psychology syllabus. Includes the function of rods and cones, the interpretation of stimuli, depth cues, Gestalt principles, psychological factors of perception, and a discussion on the fallibility of visual perception. Highly reliable examples are included.

From the Paper
"Visual Sensation, which occurs so we can detect physical stimuli, begins with the reception of information. Light waves (electromagnetic energy) enter the eye and are focused on the retina. This electromagnetic energy is then transduced by rods and cones, (light sensitive cells), into electrochemical energy enabling it to be transmitted to the brain. The electrochemical energy is then transmitted along the neurons of the optic nerve to the Occipital Lobe (Visual Cortex of brain)."

Tags:brain, eye, gestalt, neurons, psychology, sensation

Abstract
The major themes of this paper include a detailed review of what psychoanalyst, Irvin Yalom describes as the four major existential concerns, Death, Freedom, Isolation and Meaninglessness. A case study is presented to demonstrate the applicability of an existential approach in a therapeutic situation.

From the Paper
"Existential psychotherapy as Yalom points out "defies succinct expression." It is presented as a dynamic approach to therapy which focuses on concerns that are "rooted in the individuals existence." As opposed to other psychotherapeutic modalities, it does not originate from a distinct school or a systematic theory, but rather an approach that encompasses a broad range of ideas not necessarily founded on empirical evidence, but often on ?deep intuition.?"

Tags:psychotherapeutic, model, therapy

Abstract
This paper focuses upon both the needs and the challenges faced by both the family as a whole and by individuals entering the final phase of the family life cycle. It looks at how the final phase of the family life cycle encompasses two separate stages, the launching phase (55-69 years of age), which is characterized by the last dependent member of the family exiting from the family system and the 'later life' stage (70 to 100+ years of age), which is characterized by the acceptance of a shift in generational roles.

Outline
Family Systems Theory
Launching Stage
Assessment and Treatment Issues within the Launching Stage
Transition from the Launching Stage to Later Life
Later Life
End of Life and Loss
Assessment and Treatment Issues in Later Life
Summary

From the Paper
"Self-concept plays a large role within this stage, which is best portrayed by Erikson's psychosocial theory of development. Here, the middle aged adult looks outside of themselves and aspires to care, or to be of service to others; such a notion is coined: generativity. Generativity is analogous to unselfish love and is given regardless of whether or not it is reciprocated (Erikson, 1963). On the other side of the notion of generativity is stagnation, in which the individual becomes completely self-absorbed. Such a stage of conflict contributes to one's sense of purpose and their expanded identity. Here, individuals re-evaluate their career goals, they have a shift in family responsibility and they must begin to deal with one's own mortality (Erikson, 1963)."

Tags:therapy, loss, age, elderly

Abstract
This paper contrasts the two fundamental theories of Jean Piaget and his student Lawrence Kohlberg regarding the development of a child's mind. The paper explains that Jean Piaget's theory relates an age factor and the child's learning and comprehension abilities; whereas, Lawrence Kohlberg's theory deals with the value building and image forming processes of a child in various stages while a child is growing into an adult. The author presents both theories in detail.

From the Paper
"The first level of Kohlberg's theory is referred to as "Pre-Conventional Morality" (Developmental Theories) with two stages. One stage is called "Obedience and Punishment" and Stage Two is titled as "Individualism, Instrumentalism and Exchange" or "Naive Hedonism" (Developmental Theories). The authoritative figures in this level pose either threat or reward for the young learners thereby compelling them to conform to more "socially acceptable" behaviors. However, the second stage of Level One engenders a moral behavior that is not so ethical nature but rather introvert, inducing actions wherein a child performs keeping mind his needs and desires rather than what is morally accurate or inaccurate."

Tags:stage, age, fundamental, learning, process

Abstract
This paper attempts to define and describe the concept of strategy. The paper begins by explaining that few theories actually define the subject, but one of the main ones is Mintzberg's theories or school's of thought on the topic of strategy. The paper explains what the ten theories are and then shows how they apply to the organization.

Contents:
Mintzberg's ten schools of thought
Strategy as a process
Strategy in content
Strategy in context
References

From the Paper
"In Mintzberg's ten schools of thought Mintzberg classifies strategy into 10 schools of thought. These schools are grouped into either prescriptive and practitioner-focused or descriptive and research-focused. Prescriptive schools aim to control strategy process through analysis and are interested in how strategies should be formulated (Minzberg, p35, 1990). Whereas descriptive schools are more about how strategies arise and emerge (Minzberg, Ahlstrand, & Lampel. 1998). The first of the prescriptive school's is the design school. The design school seeks to establish a fit between internal capabilities and external possibilities by using a SWOT analysis (Bennigson, 1999). The next prescriptive school, the planning school, views that specialists and professional planners should develop strategy."

Tags:descriptive, prescriptive, business, organization