Abstract
This paper looks at the representation of fascism within the film medium of "1900". The paper looks at how films re-vision historical events and themes through close analysis of the portrayal of fascism in the film. The paper looks at Bertolucci himself, his views and beliefs and whether or not he challenges or advocates historical myths and assumptions.

From the Paper
"Bertolucci was born in Parma, Italy in 1940. His father encouraged his love of film, being amongst many things a film critic, and history professor , while his mother, whom Bertolucci described as "the most mysterious person in my life" , played a rather remote role within the family. Bertolucci has created a number of films, many enjoying commercial and critical success. Bertolucci's films often make political comments, furthermore 1900, despite being funded by two major American film companies ironically displays communist sentiment. 1900 re/visions the class struggle between the peasants and the landowners within 75 years of Italian history. This is captured within a four and a half hour long 'epic', exploring the relationship between two boys born on the same day from different class structures and foregrounding the rise of fascism and socialist resistance in Italy. Arguably film is the chief carrier of historical messages , being more accessible than novels or history books. However, film is perhaps the most problematic means of historical representation. Hollywood films attempt to make profit, thus they strive to entertain, win awards, and to a much lesser extent educate. 1900 is not a Hollywood film, and despite having big name actors , the film by no means follows typical Hollywood conventions. Historical films 're/vision' history; they transcend the 'linear, analytic and scientific' , and often move beyond absolute realism. They provide a vision which is subject to the value systems and motives of the filmmaker and the period in which the film was made. Through close examination of 1900, Bertolucci's revisioning of the understanding of Fascism is clearly displayed."

Tags:1900, bernardo, bertolucci, communism, fascism, film, history, italian, italy, socialism

Abstract
This paper examines how the justification for Nazi programs involving involuntary euthanasia, forced sterilisation, eugenics and human experimentation were strongly influenced by views about human dignity. It looks at how the historical development of these views should be examined today because discussions of human worth and value are integral to medical ethics and bioethics. It discusses how social Darwinism was foremost amongst the philosophies impacting views of human dignity in the decades leading up to Nazi power in Germany and how Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory was quickly applied to human beings and social structure.
Outline
Abstract
Background
Major Influences
Malthusianism
Herbert Spencer
Natural Selection
Hereditary
Eugenics
The Path to Nazi Medicine
Five Beliefs and their Impact on Bioethics
The Nature of Ethics
Human Distinctiveness
Human Gradation
Life Not Worth Living
Survival Of The Fittest
Inherent Human Dignity
Conclusion
References

From the Paper
"Social Darwinism was foremost amongst the philosophies impacting views of human dignity in the decades leading up to Nazi power in Germany. Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory was quickly applied to human beings and social structure. The term 'survival of the fittest' was coined and seen to be applicable to humans. Belief in the inherent dignity of all humans was rejected by social Darwinists. Influential authors of the day proclaimed that an individual's worth and value were to be determined functionally and materialistically. The popularity of such views ideologically prepared German doctors and nurses to accept Nazi social policies promoting survival of only the fittest humans. A historical survey reveals five general presuppositions that strongly impacted medical ethics in the Nazi era. These same five beliefs are being promoted in different ways in contemporary bioethical discourse. "

Tags:abortion, darwin, darwinism, ernst, ethics, euthanasia, germany, haeckel, holocaust, malthusianism, medicine, social

Abstract
This paper examines the outlook and the function of the propaganda of the Nazi regime. It explains that the propaganda came in the form of movies, radio, newspaper articles and advertisements, mass rallies and books and infiltrated all aspects of German life. The paper looks at how the Nazi propaganda's saturation of German life and the very nature in which propaganda should be used, set out by Hitler and Reichsminister Dr. Joseph Goebbels, were essential to the regime's popularity, the obedience of its people and the building of its psychological and physical strength and population numbers. The paper also notes that propaganda continued to be used by the National Socialists as a manipulator of the people even after they had gained power and that the focus shifted from politics to the demonization of the Jews and the mentally ill, and to the promotion of the Volksgemeinschaft. The paper further discusses how poster art was one of many suitable mediums for conveying these messages. In conclusion the paper shows that National Socialist propaganda takes its place in history as one of the most powerful and successful operations the world has ever known; a programme that indoctrinated a nation and seduced it into pursuing an ideological fantasy, which eventually resulted in catastrophe.

From the Paper
"One such example of Nazi poster propaganda is the announcement of the "Third Reich's Day of the Farmer of 1935". The farmer, who had always held a place of high esteem in Nazi ideology, is portrayed as a strong, tall, idealised Aryan. He stands upright with his sleeves rolled up as if ready to work or take on some tremendous task. He appears brave, strong and physically idealised and a perfect example of a good German and Aryan man. The National Socialists had recognised that the farmer was the "fount of national health and future German greatness", and with this poster the Propaganda Ministry aims to create awareness of the value of the farmer and his physical and "Volkish" qualities in that he is putting the concern for the greater Volk above himself by farming. Not only is the poster a piece of propaganda, but the event that it advertises is also a propaganda act, held to "strengthen National Socialist values"."

Tags:Hilter, Volksgemeinschaft, Mein, Kampf, Aryan, race, Third, Reich

Abstract
This essay addresses the question of how and why Adolf Hitler rose to the office of German chancellor in 1933. The paper contends that Hitler's ultimate appointment was the result of personalities, events and competing interests. Also examined is the role of notable power-brokers such as Hindenburg, von Papen, Schleicher and others. This paper further challenges the common view that Hitler's imposing personality and wide public appeal made his elevation almost certain. There is also a discussion of different historiographical views.

From the Paper
"Nevertheless, any examination of this must begin with an examination of Weimar - and that must start with its constitution: drafted by a liberal lawyer, debated and ratified in the first months of 1919 by a National Assembly dominated by socialists and moderates. It was a remarkable deviation from the imperial constitution which had preceded it. Instead of the earlier document's Bismarkian paternalism the Weimar constitution was rooted in popular sovereignty (Article One declares that "state authority derives from the people" ) and free-hand liberalism, bestowing a range of extensive civil rights on the German people. These included universal franchise at age 20 (including women); freedom of thought, expression and association; and full equality before the law. It utilized proportional representation - an innovative but largely untried electoral method in Europe to that point - to elect Reichstag members for four-year terms."

Tags:Hitler, NSDAP, Nazi Party, Hindenburg, von Papen, chancellor, 1933

Abstract
This paper examines the experiences of Allied prisoners of war during World War II. It compares the POWs of the Japanese with those of Germany and gives special attention to the Australians who were imprisoned by these forces. It starts with a general discussion of the circumstances of the war followed by a comparison in the areas of facilities, diet, healthcare, labor, recreation, torture and female prisoners. This comparison is made by looking at examples of the experiences of individual POWs and POW camps and its purpose is to show the reader the variety of experiences and it does not purport to be an assessment of the complete POW experience of the two nations.

From the Paper
"Fought on a number of fronts between 1939 and 1945 World War 2 can be separated into three conflicts. The Middle East and the Mediterranean between 1940-42. The Eastern front from June 1941 and the Japanese Pacific from December 1941. The war originally started when the Germans invaded Poland, causing France and the UK to declare war, while the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour incited the USA to declare war on Japan. Australia's involvement has generally been contributed to a widespread political and emotional commitment to Britain. The need for defence from the Japanese if they chose to move south was also a factor and in total 550,000 Australian men and women served in the armed forces."

Tags:airforce, allied, ambon, army, camp, detention, navy, soldier, starvation, torture

Abstract
This paper explains that there are a number of factors that led to the Nazi seizure of power. The paper examines the events leading up to the Nazi party's victory, including: the democratic Weimar Republic had always governed on shaky ground; the Depression of 1929 only gave opposition parties more force with which to crush it and create an authoritarian state. The paper then explores the methods used by Hitler to take advantage of the current situation and gain control of the government. Finally the paper looks at Hitler's extraordinary use of propaganda to further destroy democracy and sway the disorientated masses toward the Right.

From the Paper
"Through the use of unprecedented political exploitation, the Nazis were able to seize power in a country shattered by the failure of democracy and in the depths of a national crisis. The deep-seated weaknesses of the Weimar Republic were easily exploited in plunging the country into political crisis, and the Depression provided an essential backdrop for the radicalization of the people toward extremist fringe parties. Hitler's clever political manoeuvres both before and after 1929, which included joining the force against the Young Plan, and redirecting his energies toward rural Germany, combined with his unprecedented use of propaganda, however, proved to be the most essential factors in establishing the political force of the Nazis."

Tags:depression, europe, national, socialism

Abstract
This paper examines the history of anti-Semitism in Europe during the 19th century. The paper explores the similarities between the anti-Semitic prejudices that engulfed France and Russia in the late nineteenth century and then shows how in France, anti-Semitism was largely a right-wing Catholic movement, peppered with socialist support in the aftermath capitalistic change. The paper also provides a broad definition of anti-Semitism in general.

From the Paper
"Anti-Semitism is not an "identical phenomenon" similar to all countries, but rather based on individual national histories. The anti-Semitic prejudices that emerged in France and Russia in the late nineteenth century were both preceded by defeat in war, economic instability, and political change; circumstances exploited by the Judeo-phobic press and literature. However, while French anti-Semitism was derived from traditional religious dogmatism, and encouraged by the potent political force of anti-Republican Catholicism, the Russian experience was based on an ideological imperialism that was promoted by the government, and common to all "true" Russians."

Tags:france, history, jew, judaism, russia

Abstract
This essay argues that Hitler's charismatic leadership has been an overrated factor in the success of National Socialism in pre-war Germany. The author contends that the appeal of the NSDAP was its rhetoric and propaganda tapped into preexisting social values and standards, such as German folk and rural movements. The author concludes that Hitler did not appear in a political vacuum, nor did he ascend to power alone, nor did he present much that was new. Various historical references are presented throughout the paper to support the author's thesis.

From the Paper
"The psychological and historical appeal of fascism to the German people, particularly the ruling and corporate elites living under Weimar, cannot be understated. The instability of government and economics during this period, and the fragmentary and combative relationship between left- and right-wing parties between World War I and 1928 spawned a fertile rejection of centrist ideologies. Conventional historiography suggests that German fascism was both a reversionary response to post-Enlightenment liberalism and a protective reaction to socialism; it soldered together hitherto disparate interests with the common goals of nationalist regeneration, social unity and subordination to state and leader."

Tags:Pre-War Germany, Fascism, Antisemitism, propaganda

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses whether Hitler was a strong dictator or not. The writer finds that if one believes a dictator's strength to be defined by their level of administrative control of the state, it can be argued that Hitler was a weak dictator. The writer also finds that if one believes a dictator's strength is determined by their ideological following, Hitler again was a strong dictator. The writer concludes that whether Hitler was a weak dictator or not is entirely dependent on the individual's belief in what constitutes a strong or weak dictator.

From the Paper
"Under Nazi rule, Hitler led Germany to total war and to genocidal actions against both Russia and the Jewish nation. These were state actions of the most severe nature. That Hitler was Germany's dictator is hard, if not impossible, to deny. Whether Hitler was a strong dictator or a weak dictator, however, is an intensely debated question. In the absence of having lived as Hitler or at the least within the very upper echelons of Nazi leadership, one can only truly speculate based on limited primary sources, the level of Hitler's dictatorial strength during his dictatorship. Some, such as Hans Mommsen in his piece 'Hitler's Stellung im Nationalsozialistischen Herrschaftssystem' and Martin Broszat through his text 'The Hitler State: The Foundation and Development of the internal structure of the Third Reich', have argued conclusively that Hitler was somewhat of a weak dictator, with the true power of the Nazi state lying in fragmented decision making processes dispersed throughout the state."

Tags:nazi, german, fascism, genocide, dictatorship, adolf

Abstract
This paper examines Primo Levi's "If This is a Man", which discusses the true nature of man, and his ability to adapt in degrading circumstances, when faced with evil and dehumanization. The paper maintains that although the prisoners of Auschwitz were degraded and demoralized, they were not able to be dehumanized for the choice to give up is a personal decision that cannot be made by another. The paper states that Primo's work provides insight into the lives and nature of the victims of the Holocaust. It concludes that analysis of this text may broaden one's knowledge of the Holocaust and Jewish culture, as well as man's ability to adapt and handle depersonalisation.

From the Paper
"In the initiation process that welcomed prisoners to Auschwitz they were stripped of every ounce of their identity that could be taken: "Nothing belongs to us any more; they have taken away our clothes, our shoes, even our hair; if we speak, they will not listen, and if they listen they will not understand." (p.33) Even their names were removed and replaced by numbers, tattooed on their bodies; with which they would be identified: "He is Null Achtzehn. He is not called anything except that, Zero Eighteen, the last three figures of his entry number; as if everyone was aware that only a man is worthy of a name, and that Null Achtzehn is no longer a man" (p.48). The prisoners soon realize that along with individuality all social distinctions and subtleties, good and bad, wise and foolish, the cushions of law, social habits and morals within the camp are reduced to zero. In the concentration camps "there is only survival or death" (p.59). Deprived of all human-defining aspects they begin a new existence as nothing more than laboring units. It is this first initiation process that starts the erosion of the prisoners' humanity."

Tags:WWII, dehumanization, holocaust