Abstract
A look at the origins of the Dead Sea Scrolls and who actually found them, as discussed in Hanks's book. The paper provides a history of Palestine at the time and the sociological and historical implications of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. It looks at how their revelation became a political issue.

From the Paper
"Hershell Hanks begins his book "The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls," (Shanks, 1998) with a startling revelation. Despite numerous treatises, articles and books on the subject, it is still unclear who found The Dead Sea Scrolls. An Arab shepherd boy or maybe two shepherd boys searching for their lost sheep close to the banks of the Dead Sea discovered the "Scrolls" in 1947 in a cave in Qumran "though the date varies depending on the source. In an effort to look for the lost sheep, the Bedouin shepherd began throwing stones into nearby caves. An unexpected cracking sound of earthenware inside the cave encouraged him to explore further. Muhammad Ahmad el-Hamed of the Ta'amireh tribe is assumed to be the shepherd who found the scrolls. This fact has however been constantly debated and interviewing and identifying the right individual who found the scroll was never possible at the time."

Tags:qumran, cave

Abstract
A look at how "Exodus" records the critical elements of Israelite political and religious tradition and clearly defines the Israelite?s obligation to God, defines God, and defines Israel as a nation.

From the Paper
"Exodus records the seminal experiences of the Israelite tradition. Although Genesis commences the literal Biblical history narrative, the Genesis events merely anticipate the critical and purposive events of Exodus. Indeed, the Yahwist author stylistically anticipates Exodus by using the personal name of God, as revealed to Moses through the burning bush, before God's name is revealed in the narrative. Similarly, Genesis? thematic focus on sin, forgiveness, and blessing anticipates God's final covenant, the Mosaic covenant. Whereas some Biblical traditions, such as the flood story and the monarchy, are at least corroborated or paralleled by other texts, the Bible remains virtually the sole source for investigating the Exodus events. Consequently, many consider the Exodus, magical and fantastical elements aside, to be of dubious historical validity. However, concluding that central elements of the Exodus, are not, in fact, historic, would significantly assault the integrity of the Israelite tradition, because Exodus records the critical elements of Israelite political and religious tradition. Exodus clearly defines the Israelite's obligation to God, defines God, and defines Israel as a nation."

Tags:bible, commandments, exodus, history, israel, moses, pharaoh, ten

From the Paper
"During the winter of 1963-1964, world renound archaeologist, Yigael Yadin, led an excavation of Mt. Masada. In a research paper, published at Hebrew University, by Hershel Shanks, one of the archaeologist at Masada, three questions are asked that may discredit the events at Mt. Masada: 1) If the Jews did commit suicide, then where are their bodies?, 2) If Titus was a by the book general, then why did the Romans not storm the fort upon breaking through the wall?, 3) If Flavius Josephus was not present to witness the events, then how can we trust his account? These questions are hard to answer, because the only sources that we have are the writings of Josephus and the results of the excavations at Masada. To analyze the events of Masada we have no choice, but to use some speculation to bring all of the information together for a reasonable conclusion."

Tags:eleazar, jewish, jews, masada, revolt, roman, siege, titus, yadin

Abstract
This paper is an in-depth examination of the archaeological and historical importance of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The paper examines its importance to Christianity and its place in history. The author goes into great detail as to how the church was first built, and who was responsible for its initial construction. The church changed hands several times, and this is covered as well. The Church and its history is intertwined with that of the city where it is located, Jerusalem, a point that is emphasized throughout this paper.

From the Paper
"It was there that she identified the place as the crucifixion site of Jesus and the emperor decided to mark the importance of this site by building a shrine there. This shrine became the holiest religious place for Christians and was named the church of the holy Sepulcher. John L. Lyons (1997) writes, "In the vicinity, directly under the temple of Venus erected by Hadrian, Empress Helena claimed to have found the cross upon which Jesus died. Constantine had the Church of the Holy Sepulcher built over the proposed site of the Crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. Various Christian groups, including Greek, Latin, Coptic, Jacobite, Armenian, and Ethiopian ones, have tended to the church over the centuries, and each controls some aspect of its present form." But this religious site has not been revered by all, as over the period of time, it was destroyed and rebuilt quite a few times as rulers of Jerusalem changed."

Tags:jerusalem, christ, bible, christianity, empire, roman, persians, crusaders, tomb, archelogical, site, families, muslim, burial, jesus

Abstract
The flood story recurs in many ancient civilizations, even in distant parts of the world, though the nature of the story may be very different in some cultures. The paper shows the links between the flood story as told in the ancient Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh and the flood story of Noah as told in Genesis. There is recent evidence that there may have been a great flood in the area of the Black Sea which may have become a continuing tribal memory that was eventually embodied in "The Epic of Gilgamesh" and reshaped to fit the theology of the Israelites for the tale told in Genesis. The paper shows that the two versions of the flood story have many points of agreement, suggesting that they are somehow connected, although in the Noah story, the role of God differs from the role of the gods in Gilgamesh.

From the Paper
"In the Atrahasis version of the story, the Flood portion of the text, which is quite damaged, presents a narrative account of Mesopotamian primeval history that parallels the version in Genesis 1-11 inclusively. The Flood Story in Atrahasis is more than twice the length of the Gilgamesh version. While they seem to tell the same story, the function of the floods in the two epics is quite different. In Atrahasis, the flood is a means of population control and a divider of epochs, while in Gilgamesh, it explains how immortality was once granted to a mortal. The Atrahasis Epic begins with the creation of humankind because the labor-class gods are tired of the heavy tasks imposed on them by the management-class gods."

Tags:Ashurbanipal, Enkidu, Ishtar, Atrahasis, Elohim

Abstract
What started out as an exploration of some ancient scrolls discovered in the Dead Sea region has become a career for some people, a controversy regarding control of the material and a matter leading to interpretation and reinterpretation of central issues in Christianity. The paper examines the story of the Dead Sea Scrolls, describes the controversies and sets forth current findings.

From the Paper
"One of the best overviews of the Qumran project is provided by Hershel Shanks (1998). Shanks was part of the basic editorial team, involved with the archeological excavations, and the initial work on the scrolls. He was part of the group which decided, in the 1990s, to open up the Qumran scrolls to general access. He discussed the political machinations of the group, as well as the relationship of the scrolls to numerous. For example, one issue is the nature of the Copper Scroll and whether that is essentially a fantasy or a real treasure map."

Tags:Qumran, Essence, William, Moffett, Old, Testament, Judaism

Abstract
Rituals played a vital role in the wars of the Old Testament: divine consultation, preparatory rites, scare tactics, the herem and purification rites all characterized the Israelite battles. This paper gives a systematic overview of the rituals associated with ancient Israelite warfare in the Old Testament used before, during and after battle.

From the Paper
Consultation with God prior to battle was key in the pre-war rituals of the Old Testament. The Israelites would consult God to determine if they would be successful in their battle. Several methods and techniques were used to communicate with God, including simple consultations, omens/signs (sent from God), mediums, and the use of magical articles such as the ephod. An example of a simple consultation can be seen in 1 Samuel 23:2, where a report has reached David that the city of Keliah has been attacked by the Philistines. Not knowing what to do, David prays to God asking if he should go and rescue the city of Keliah. God answers, "Go and attack the Philistines and save Keliah" (1 Samuel 23:2). This is the simplest form of consultation that is seen in the Israelite pre-war ritual tradition. Here, God's word is given directly from God and not through any outside source requiring interpretation.

Tags:bible, hebrew, pentateuch, samuel, Philistines

From the Paper
"The study of ancient Israel has been both tremendously advanced and transformed by the use of archaeology. This field has been used to support the historical narrative provided by the Biblical text in some instances, while altering the views of many modern scholars as to what dates the biblical stories are to represent, when they were written, and how historically reliable they are. Although the use of archaeology in the study of ancient Israel has not been able to conclusively support or refute the assumptions made about the time period, as derived from the Bible, it has proved helpful in formulating more well-informed beliefs as to what ancient Israelite society was like."

Tags:bible, christ, christianity, god, jesus, origins, religion, theology

Abstract
Mesopotamia was the land of four primary civilizations: the Sumerian, the Akkadians, the Babylonian and the Assyrians. The paper shows that the Hebrews, like the Akkadians, belong to a group of people known as Semites and from there we can see the influence of Mesopotamian culture in some of the Hebrews traditions. The paper shows that during the same time, civilization began in Egypt. A distinct difference can be seen in the social, religious and political system from Mesopotamia and the link between the two civilizations are the Hebrews. The paper examines historical documents from all three societies - "The Epic of Gilgamesh", first passed on by word of mouth and later recorded by the Sumerians around the third millennium and finally edited and written down in cuneiform by the Babylonians; "Instructions of Kagemni", a set of etiquette amongst Egyptian noblemen and government executives; and finally the Holy Hebrew Bible ("Tanach"). The paper shows how the three societies are linked through proof in these documents.

From the Paper
""Hymn to Aton" reflects the political and social status of the time and adds to the importance of the aid of god to proper management of a territory and the people within. This was the first and only attempt of a Egyptian ruler to a monotheistic society. It could be argued that this could be an isolated attempt or that the Hebrews somehow influenced Amenhotep IV to this change. It is very important to consider this possibility since it would make the transferring of similar traditions between the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians and the Hebrews civilizations understandable.

The role of women is important and well respected in Egyptian civilization, perhaps more than Mesopotamian. The "Hymn to Aton" recognizes the importance of both sexes for procreation. This document is used just as the "Laws of Hammurabi" to better control his territory at a time when the clergy and the multitude of gods and temples are gaining popularity and, obviously, control."

Tags:Enkidu, Humbaba, Ishtar, Proverbs, Genesis

Abstract
Violent conflict is well documented in human history and certainly appears in many prehistorical finds. The writer provides a systematic and comparative study of warfare from an archaeological perspective. This paper shows that the frequency and severity of war is commensurate and indeed rises with increased complexity of social interactions.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Definition of War
Pre-state and State Societies
Civilization
Prehistoric War
Hebrews: Pre-Monarchy
Hebrew Monarchy
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Has the frequency and severity of warfare increased? More specifically, have these levels escalated compared to pre-state societies and societies of state? Firstly, in answering this question a definition of war is proposed, followed by a classification of societies, and a definition of the term 'civilization'. Secondly, details of prestate Hebrew society and their early state civilization will be contrasted. Finally, the contemporary Assyrian state that ultimately dominated the Hebrews is reviewed. In this assessment the essay draws on various historical and archaeological accounts that portray the increased frequency and severity of war."

Tags:Hebrew, Israelites, prehistoric, society, civilization