Abstract
This paper looks at the findings from the site Olduvai Gorge. Despite the many years since the first discoveries, Olduvai remains an extremely important archaeological site. Debate over the significance of the Olduvai artifacts continues and new information may be revealed as new archaeological analysis techniques come into use.

From the Paper
"Olduvai Gorge has been described as the most important Palaeolithic site in Africa (Bray, 1970). Excavations of Olduvai, by Drs. Mary and Louis Leakey after 1931 [although conducted by Hans Reck prior to this (Ecco Homo, 1986)] unearthed a treasure of hominid fossils and stone tools (Potts, 1988). Oduvai has influenced views on evolution and shaped our ideas about the origins of human hunting and gathering (as well as cultural learning) behaviours. (Potts, 1988). Discoveries at Olduvai also include faunal remains, living floors and what is probably the oldest known human structure (Leakey, 1971)."

Tags:archeology

From the Paper
"There are few true hunter-gatherer societies living in the modern world. One of those societies, the !Kung-San Bushmen of Botswana and southern Africa, provide a unique and provocative look into societal evolution and the behavior of pre-agricultural and industrial societies. The life of the !Kung represents a way of life that was universal for Homo Sapiens until about 10,000 years ago, or with the advent of the agricultural revolution and all it entailed. With the !Kung, modern Anthropologists are able to glean "basic human social forms, language, and human nature.".
This paper will present an overview of the !Kung Bushmen, commenting on their physical and social environment, population and health, sex roles, childhood, family and marriage, kinship, and division of labor. One initial linguistic note: the Bushmen's oral language consists of a number of clicking sounds ... "

Abstract
Martin Bernal, author of "Black Athena", argues that numerous cultural achievements that are, by tradition, attributed to the ancient Greeks, are actually found in Africa, specifically, the Egyptians. Mary Lefkowitz, author of "Not Out of Africa," argues that Bernal's findings and assumptions are incorrect. This essay examines both works and discusses the opposing views.

From the Paper
"Berlinerblau, in his review of Lefkowitz's book, discusses the importance of academic inquiry unencumbered by political conerns (Berlinerblau Pp). Lefkowitz refers to Bernal as an armchair archaeologist. However, she is not the only critic of Bernal's work (Berlinerblau Pp). Robert Palter writes, "Bernal's rhetoric is predicated, unwittingly "on ignorance and superficial understanding" (Berlinerblau Pp)."

Tags:Afrocentrist, classicist

Abstract
"Segu" by Conde Maryse, an epic novel on the transformation of African life during the early colonial period, touches on many important aspects of African social change. This paper shows how the rise of Islam, fall of localized tribes, and growing emergence of slavery are set against a vivid backdrop of one family's struggle to stay afloat in a rapidly changing world.

From the Paper
"The novel Segu portrays a nation caught in turmoil. In its opening pages, one sees the beginnings of the downfall of the Traore family. A seemingly idyllic life is shattered. Dousika's prominent government role is lost unjustly through the jealousy of others, and the stage for the familial decline is set. This decline, of course, is in many ways metaphorical of the decline of the entire kingdom of Segu. During the late 1700's and early 1800's, a variety of historical movements began to draw the African nation into an increasingly precarious situation. Slavery becomes a major factor in everyday life. Perhaps more importantly, however, the rise of Islam began to make inroads into Segu - represented in the novel by the conversion of Tiekoro, the prominent heir to the Traore compound. This influence had already reached much of Africa and had created widespread upheavals and massive change in social structure. Throughout the novel, Segu is portrayed as the last island in a gathering sea of invasive ideology, and the ordeals of the Traore family reveal the complexities and tensions created by the monumental clashes of religion and culture that ensue. Every aspect of Segu life, from government to family to the individual, undergoes radical change as each struggle to adapt to a new way of life."

Tags:africa, african, analysis, change, colonialism, islam, literary, novel, segu, slavery, social, studies, tribalism

Abstract
This is a serious look at the way women are treated in Kenya. The paper goes out to explain the various consequences and types of Female Gentalia Mutilation . It also tries to justify why the practice is still carried out through the eyes of the traditional people. . The author argues that there is a need for strong outreach, education at the grassroots and family life education: that involves the communities and addresses the main reasons to discontinue the practice. This should be done in compromise but not by attacking the practicing few.

From the Paper
"According to the Kenya demographic Health Survey (KDHS), female circumcision is the partial or complete cutting away of a woman's external genitalia. While the practice is thought to be a cultural tradition in Kenya, KDHS says its origin and underlying cultural rational is not clearly understood. It is commonly referred to as female circumcision mostly to imply that it is similar to male circumcision. However, the degree of cutting is more extreme and often impairs a woman's sexual and reproductive functions. It is because of this that the name female genital mutilation is starring."

Tags:circumscision, clitoridectomy, passage, rights, rite, womanhood, women

From the Paper
"This study will provide a summary of Colin M. Turnbull's The Forest People: A Study of the Pygmies of the Congo. Turnbull has a deep respect for the Pygmies of the Ituri Forest in the Congo after living with them for years, and his emphasis in the book is on life as seen, experienced and loved by the Pygmies themselves:


This book tries to convey something of the lives and feelings of a people who live in a forest world, something of their intense love for that world and their trust in it. It is a world that will soon be gone forever, and with it the people (5).


Turnbull wants to show the reader how the people themselves feel about their world, the forest, the sounds, the animal and plant life, their culture, their practices, social system and beliefs. Outsiders---even villagers who live near the forest--..."

Abstract
This paper explains that, although purpose of this epic book, "Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali", is to tell a story for entertainment, it also teaches about the history of Africa, proving that Africa does have a history, and it does have culture and adventure. The author points out that the theme of religion is complicated by the references to both animal gods and magical powers and to Islam. The paper relates that the book depicts a male-oriented society in Western Africa, where women are the child care givers and tend the animals and the gardens, while men are the hunters, managers of family matters, and keepers of the structure of the house.

From the Paper
"Having more than one wife is another aspect of the gender culture in their ancient society. Polygamy was practiced amongst the kings in this book. Sogolon and her children lived in an old hut outside of the palace because the queen mother Sassouma Berete kicked them out after the king died. Against the king's wishes, her son Dankaran Touman was proclaimed king instead of Sundiata. Having many wives created a conflict when more than boy was born by more than one of the king's wives. The king's first wife was bitterly jealous and was the reason for Sogolon and her children having to go into exile. The queen mother took on almost a male gender role in this story because she wanted her son to the king."

Tags:men, women, islam, history, king

Abstract
In his ethnography "The Forest People," Colin Turnbull has done an excellent job of providing details of the different aspects of the BaMbuti. This essay gives a descriptive analysis of three cultural traits of the BaMbuti's culture from a functionalist perspective. The three topics discussed in this paper include politics, economics, and religion. There are many examples that could be included within each topic; however, for the purpose of this paper, it focuses mainly on one particular example for each section.

From the Paper
"With regards to political organization, the BaMbuti is a tightly knit hunter-gatherer tribe that has its own unique set of checks and balances. From a structural-functionalist perspective, peoples of the BaMbuti have no formal political authority; there are neither formal written laws, nor law enforcement agencies needed in the BaMbuti's relatively simple social structure. To the BaMbuti, cooperation is key concerning decisions affecting the group as a whole (Turnbull 124)."

Tags:figureheads, Belgian, Epulu, hunter

Abstract
In this review of Tsitsi Dangarembga's "Nervous Conditions", the author of the paper shows how the theme of African identity and culture is woven through the storyline. The paper investigates the importance of the narrators and women in the book, themes and the relevance of the story.

From the Paper
"With any story, the meaning within the story does not have impact unless we care about the character. Tambu is the main character that we care about in the novel. She engages the reader into the story because we want to know about her, we want to know about her struggle and we want to know why that struggle has occurred. The only way to learn of that struggle, is to learn about the culture and so the reader, while reading the novel, attempts to understand the culture. "

Tags:Nyasha, Tambu, women

Abstract
This paper describes the type of spirit possession called zar that is found among Sudanese women. It analyses the meanings of zar in Hofrifati culture in order to realize the positive potential of this movement. It then examines the ways that issues of socialization, psychotherapeutic adjustment and meaning are played out in relation to possession.

From the Paper
"Examining the implicit meanings of zar spirit possession in Hofriyati culture from a cultural perspective allows us to realize the positive potential of this movement. Not only is zar an outlet whereby Sudanese women can free themselves from the sanctions put on them within their culture, but also a vital form of socialization between women in the tribe whereby they are able to express emotion without any responsibility for their actions (Boddy, 1988). Where western psychoanalytic theories of spirit possession may portray it in a negative way, as an illness needing to be cured, a broader perspective allows us to see the healing potential of the zar (Boddy, 1994). Zar spirit possession can be beneficial for Sudanese women as it allows them an avenue for self- reflection, something they wouldn't otherwise have access to under the constrains of the moral obligations of their culture (Boddy, 1988)."

Tags:Hofriyati, zar, cult, identity